Abstract: A discussion about a review on Employees’ Emotions in workplace has received relatively little attention from organizational behaviour researchers. The first of the themes to be addressed concerns the relationship between emotion and rationality. There has been a longstanding bifurcation between the two with emotions labelled in pejorative terms and devalued in matters concerning the workplace. The next theme to be explored centres around the theoretical grounding of emotion. Emotion is often described either in psychological terms as an individualized, intrapersonal response to some stimulus, or by contrast, a socially constituted phenomenon, depending upon the disciplinary perspective one adopts. This body of research has examined how organizations, as powerful culture eating institutions, have applied normative expectations and established boundaries for the acceptable expression of emotion among employees through tactics such as applicant screening and selection measures, employee training, off-the-job socialization opportunities, organizational rewards and the creation of rituals, ideologies and other symbols for indoctrinating the newly hired into the culture of the organization.
INTRODUCTION
Emotion is defined as a complex feeling state accompanied by physiological arousal and overt behaviours. The words Emotion and Motivation, in essence, imply motion. Motivation is typically functional because a motivated person moves himself towards some goal. But, emotion is primarily expressive because an emotional person is moved. Emotion can be motivating to the extent that human activity towards certain goal is influenced and sustained by feelings. Whenever, we try to attain happiness or get rid of anger, irritation, etc. emotion plays significantly a motivated role. To the emotionally aroused person, the most distinct aspect of emotion is the feeling component. For instance, a worker becomes upset after every bang from his superior. Soon he develops a kind of panic towards his superior and instantaneously trembles and turns pale whenever he happens to meet him. This feeling cannot precisely be described. Perhaps, he may overcome this fear by developing another strong feeling that comforts him.
The physiological component of emotion includes excitatory and inhibitory reactions that occur through arousal of the sympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system accelerates the heart, dilates the pupils, gives rise to adrenalin and controls the secretion of gastric juices. The individual becomes ready to fight or flight or affiliate. Under prolonged stress, the physiological processes hardly return to normalcy and therefore, they may cause pains, tissue damage or malfunction of organs. These disorders are called psychosomatic reactions, for they involve the body or Soma. Somatic disorders influenced by emotional factors include asthma, sinus problems, high blood pressure, adverse skin conditions, ulcers and mostly the common cold. Likewise, emotional elements find common reference in behavioural component. Individuals, across cultures, share certain facial expressions, gestures or postures to express emotions.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT
Emotions can be managed through conscious practices. Morris and Feldman (1996) defined emotional labour as "the effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotion during interpersonal transactions". This definition comes from an interactionist approach, where, emotions are expressed in and partially determined by, the social environment. The emotional labour consists of four dimensions: (a) frequency of interactions (b) attentiveness (intensity of emotions, duration of interaction) (c) variety of Emotions required and (d) emotional dissonance. Emotional dissonance was discussed by Hochschild (1983) as a state where, in the emotions expressed are discrepant from the emotions felt. Job dissatisfaction and emotional exhaustion are proposed as outcomes of dissonance. This definition of emotional labour includes the organizational expectations for employees in their Interactions with customers (how long, how intense, how often), as well as the internal state of tension that occurs when a person must display emotions that are discrepant from his or her true feelings (emotional dissonance).
According to emotion regulation theory proposed by Gross (1998a) the individual can regulate emotions at two points. At the first intervening point, an individual can engage in antecedent-focused emotion regulation where, the individual modifies the situation or the perception of the situation in order to adjust emotions. It is stated that different types of antecedent-focused emotion regulation are situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment and cognitive change. The first two types involve adjustments in the emotion-inducing situation. As integrationist theory discusses, people often choose the situations in which they act, including the situations that may create emotions (Buss, 1987). Employees may choose their jobs, but for service employees there may be little opportunity for situation selection beyond that as a method to regulate emotions. To enact situation modification, an employee may choose to leave the work floor if a certain customer approaches, but this lack of availability is not quality customer service (Parasuraman et al., 1985) and may result in adverse consequences for the individual. With the lack of options to choose or modify the situation, emotion regulation may take the form of the employee leaving the organization. In short, service employees may not have the breadth of situation modification that is available outside of a work role.
Gross (1998b) proposed that an individual could engage in response-focused emotion regulation, or response modulation. In this process, the person has a tendency toward an emotional response, but manipulates how he or she shows that emotional response by "directly influencing physiological, experiential, or behavioural responding". Rather than adjusting the situation or the perception of the situation, the individual manipulates the emotional expression of his or her reaction to the situation. This could be done with exercise or drugs that induce the appropriate state. An individual may also adjust the intensity of the displayed emotion, or fake the expression entirely. Response-focused emotion regulation corresponds with the process of surface acting. The job environment or a particular work event may induce an emotion response in the employee (e.g., anger, sadness, anxiety) and behaviours may follow that would be inappropriate for the encounter (e.g., verbal attack, crying, complaining). Generally, individuals experience a physiological state of arousal or emotion (anger or fear) and they then have an emotional tendency (attack or flee). This corresponds with Frijda (1986) idea of action readiness and Freud (1961) idea that emotions provide clues about the environment. The arousal state from emotions informs them and gets them in a bodily state to respond to the situation. But in today's society, people learn to regulate that emotional tendency, so that their emotional reactions to other people don't result in "fight or flight" (Cannon, 1932). So, these action tendencies to respond to emotion-producing stimuli are overridden by coping or regulatory processes so that people do not act inappropriately in social settings (Lazarus, 1991).
In order to show the appropriate emotion for a situation, sometimes individuals must inhibit or suppress feelings. Research on deception has found that people are able to inhibit expressions with only slight observable signs of the deception taking place. However, this regulation for the social interaction may tax the system. Inhibiting feelings and emotional expression lowers behavioural activity, but has actually been found to increase autonomic nervous system activity (Pennebaker, 1985). Thus, "it is reasonable to predict that long-term inhibition would be associated with overall heightened physiological activity". This physiological activity, or "bottling up" of emotions, taxes the body over time by overworking the cardiovascular and nervous systems and weakening the immune system. As evidence of this process, research has linked the inhibition of emotions to a variety of physical illness, including higher blood pressure and cancer (Blackburn, 1965; Gross, 1989; King and Emmons, 1990; Smith, 1992). In fact, inability to express negative emotion is one of the strongest predictors of cancer (Cox and Mackay, 1982; Derogatis et al., 1979).
Although the work setting may create a chronic need to regulate emotions, the acute events at work have an immediate impact on an employee's emotions. As suggested by Weiss and Cropanzano (1996), emotional events at work may help explain employee attitudes and behaviour. An emotional event may lead to more emotional regulation when that event results in emotions that are discrepant from the organizational display rules. The event is appraised for its positive or negative influence on the person's well-being. In particular, if the event interferes with the employee's goals, one of which is to express and induce positive emotions, the event will be appraised negatively. In other words, the event may be seen as stressful. Such events may involve a customer angrily blaming the employee for a product malfunction or learning that a family member has become sick. In such cases, the employee experiences an event that requires emotion regulation to maintain the appropriate appearance at work. On the other hand, if the event creates a positive emotion (such a hearing about a raise or getting accepted to graduate school), then that may help meet display rules. In this case, less emotion regulation would be necessary.
As suggested by Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) supported by the emotion regulation literature, the environment is a very important factor in understanding emotion management. It is very possible that the situation in which employees work may affect the level and type of emotional labour in which they engage. Employee’s moods, emotions and overall dispositions have an impact on job performance, decision-making, creativity, turnover, teamwork, negotiations and leadership. People are not isolated 'emotional islands.' rather; they bring all of themselves to work, including their traits, moods and emotions and their affective experiences and expressions.
MULTI-LEVEL THEORY OF EMOTIONS IN ORGANISATIONS
Emotions play a role at five levels: within-person, individual, dyadic, group and organisational. Examples of the thrust of research at each level are Fisher and Ashkanasy (2000) work on emotions and individual and within-person variations in affect; a model of leadership and emotions; work on emotional intelligence in groups (Jordan et al., 2002) and work in progress on emotional climate, an organisational level phenomenon (Nicholson and Ashkanasy 1999). The role of emotions in organizational life has only recently developed as a valid and pertinent area of scholarly discourse. A catalyst for this interest has been the concept of emotional intelligence, introduced by Salovey and Mayer (1990). Since then there has been increasing interest generally in the role of emotions in applied and organizational settings. Early organizational theorists largely ignored emotions or assumed that they played a negative role by biasing perceptions and interfering with administrative rationality However, influential work on emotional labour made it apparent that the display of appropriate emotions is essential to many jobs and plays a large role in how employees are perceived. In many service transactions, customers demand service with a smile.
STUDIES OF COGNITION AND EMOTION IN ORGANISATIONS
Attribution, affective events, emotional intelligence and perception of emotion by Ashkanasy and Tse (2000). In particular there are three areas of research in emotions in organisational settings that have important implications for managers. First, affective events theory tells managers that the ostensibly minor hassles and uplifts that people experience at work every day accumulate to determine organisational members’ affective states and these states can subsequently affect their attitudes and behaviours at work; second, work on emotional intelligence is introducing a new appreciation of the role of emotional perception, understanding and management in organisations, popularised recently by Goleman (1995, 1998) and third, managers are now coming to appreciate the pros and cons of emotional labour in organisations, as popularised and the implications of these for management practice. In this respect, Ashkanasy and Daus (2002) set out five tips for better management of emotions, as follows: (i) Rather than seeing jobs as purely rational undertakings, managers need to assess the ‘emotional impact’ of each employee’s job and to design job assignments that take this into account, (ii) Organisations are not cold places that people enter just to work. Managers need to create a positive and friendly emotional climate and to model this through their own behaviour, (iii) Managers can encourage a positive emotional climate through rewards and compensation systems (iv) Selection of employees and teams needs to be based, in part, on a positive emotional attitude. Managers should select employees on the basis of their record for engendering a positive emotional attitude in their work teams and finally and (v) Managers should seek to train their employees to improve their emotional intelligence skills and to engage in healthy emotional expression at work.
The relationship of emotional exhaustion to work attitudes, job performance and organizational citizenship behaviours (Cropanzano et al., 2003). Emotional exhaustion has emerged as a central variable for understanding the burnout process. The reasons for this are both empirical and conceptual. Empirically, some work has suggested that emotional exhaustion exhibits somewhat stronger relationships than do the other components to important outcome variables. Conceptually, argued that emotional exhaustion best captures the core meaning of burnout. In keeping with these empirical findings and conceptual frameworks, the authors explored the relationship of emotional exhaustion to important work behaviours, attitudes and intentions. Recent trends of emotion in organizations have received relatively little attention from organizational behaviour researchers (Gopinath, 2011a). The first of the themes to be addressed concerns the relationship between emotion and rationality. There has been a longstanding bifurcation between the two with emotions labelled in pejorative terms and devalued in matters concerning the workplace. The next theme to be explored centers around the theoretical grounding of emotion. Emotion is often described either in psychological terms as an individualized, intrapersonal response to some stimulus, or, by contrast, a socially constituted phenomenon, depending upon the disciplinary perspective one adopts.
Impact of strategic planning on organizational performance and survival reported by Taiwo and Idunnu (2007). Based on the findings from the study the following recommendations are made. Having discovered that organizational performance and survival is a function of strategic planning, Organizations should accord priority attention to the elements of strategic planning for example; having a documented mission statement, a future picture (vision) of the organization, organizations should establish core values i.e., organization’s rules of conduct, set realistic goals, establishment of long term objectives (this has to be measurable and specific) and the development of action (strategic) plans and its implementation and adequate follow-up. Finally, since it was discovered that environmental factors affect strategic planning intensity, organizations should make adequate environmental analysis both the internal and external analysis, this can be done through the SWOT analysis which indicates the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
EMOTIONAL EXHAUSTION AND TURNOVER
In work settings, the withdrawal by emotionally exhausted workers can manifest itself by turnover. This effect has been amply demonstrated and the present study seeks only to replicate it. The role of emotional intelligence in the pursuit of a spiritual life: Implications for individuals in organisations (Harmer and Fallon, 2007). Research into emotional intelligence and workforce effectiveness suggests organisations that provide employees with the feeling they belong to a community willing to support, guide and help them through the many emotional peaks and troughs of work will be more engaged and committed. Although still contentious, academic research suggests the effective application of individual emotional intelligence at work by leaders and employees at all levels is a stronger predictor of organisational effectiveness than traditional intelligence (IQ) or an individual’s personality.
At an organisational level, effective emotional intelligence has been shown to underpin: a work team’s capacity to identify and ascribe to attitudinal and behavioural norms related to more effective patterns of interacting employees capacity to recognise, understand and navigate boundary and role confusion between work teams, departments, divisions and the organisation within the broader market context and a sense of organisational accomplishment and trouble free operation, as well as the development of vertical trust, organisational support and general workplace wellbeing. At an individual and leadership effectiveness level, emotional intelligence is related to a leader’s capability to show sensitivity and empathy towards others; build on other work colleague’s ideas; influence others to accept alternative points of view; demonstrate integrity and; act according to prevailing ethical standards by remaining consistent with one’s words and actions (Barbuto and Burbach, 2006; Dulewicz and Higgs, 2003; Palmer et al., 2001, 2003).
EMOTION REGULATION IN THE WORKPLACE
A new way to conceptualize emotional labour by Grandey et al. (2004). Generally, emotions are managed in response to the display rules for the organization or job (Ekman and Friesen, 1975; Goffman, 1959). These rules regarding the expectations for emotional expression may be stated explicitly in selection and training materials, or known by observation of co-workers. Many work roles have display rules regarding the emotions that employees should show the public. In other words, managing emotions is one way for employees to achieve organizational goals. If an employee were to express a depressed mood or anger toward a co-worker or customer that would ruin the performance. Dramaturgical perspective offered two main ways for actors to manage emotions: through surface acting where, one regulates the emotional expressions and through deep acting where, one consciously modifies feelings in order to express the desired emotion. One of major tenets is that this management of emotions requires effort.
EMOTION CYCLES
On the social influence of emotion in organizations by Hareli and Rafaeli (2007). Human behaviour is often governed by inferences about other people and the attributions they evoke. As noted above, appraisal theories of emotion suggest that emotions can tell a story about the individual experiencing the emotion. Building on such stories people may not only react emotionally, as suggested above but may also draw inferences about emotive agents. By extension, an agent presumed to be experiencing anger may also be presumed to have been let down, offended, or disobeyed by someone (Tiedens, 2001) which could endow him or her with high power (Tiedens et al., 2000) which is a key element of the story of anger (Smith and Ellsworth, 1985). Thus, knowledge of an agents' emotion can lead others to presume knowledge of other things about the agent; the presumed knowledge extends the meaning of an emotion to afford information about the agent in addition to how he or she is feeling. Available research suggests that agent emotions can inspire inferences and attributions of three types: (a) the social status or power of an emotive agent; (b) the competence of the agent and (c) the credibility of the agent.
WHEN CUSTOMERS LASH OUT
The effects of customer interactional injustice on emotional labour and the mediating role of discrete emotions (Rupp and Spencer, 2006). Emotional labour toward the goal of emotion regulation, many organizations have formal policies, known as display rules, regarding the expected emotions of their employees (Ekman and Friesen, 1982; Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987, 1990; Sutton and Rafaeli, 1988; Wharton and Erickson, 1995). Adherence to display rules is viewed as a practical necessity because the emotional front-in many cases courtesy, friendliness and cheerfulness-plays an important role in fostering positive customer perceptions of service quality (Schneider and Bowen, 1985; Schneider et al., 1980). Although disagreement exists regarding an explicit definition of EL (Glomb and Tews, 2004), our focus is on the degree of effort involved in emotion management during interpersonal transactions.
When employee’s true emotions are not consistent with emotional display rules, they might engage in one of two forms of EL strategies: surface acting (modifying facial expression) or deep acting modifying inner feelings (Grandey, 2003). Research has indicated that surface acting has more negative effects on employees than does deep acting (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002; Morris and Feldman, 1997; Pugliesi, 1999). Surface acting is more likely to be used by inexperienced employees than by those with more on-the-job experience. The current study’s conceptualization of EL is consistent with the notion of surface acting. That is, employees must expend effort and exercise control to modify outward emotional displays (i.e., surface act) when their internal feelings conflict with those required by display rules.
Bridging justice and emotional labour via affective events theory one class of affective events includes situations where, individuals feel they are treated unfairly. For example, Weiss et al. (1999) as well as Krehbiel and Cropanzano (2000) have presented empirical evidence showing that individuals experience anger when treated unfairly and happiness when treated fairly. Clayton (1992) and Mikula (1986) also provide evidence that anger is a common consequence of injustice perceptions. The current study seeks to extend this research by exploring how situations involving interactional mistreatment by customers serve as affective events.
WHEN CLERKS MEET CUSTOMERS
A test of variables Related to emotional expressions on the job (Rafaeli, 1989). Clerk Attributes: sex role socialization and conveyed emotions. The first part of the study examined clerk sex and its relationship to the emotions conveyed on the job. Gender differences in nonverbal behaviour are well documented (Deaux, 1985). It is commonly argued that men tend to display nonverbal cues that reflect power and authority whereas, women typically display more warmth and liking cues (Bem, 1974; Frieze and Ramsey, 1976; Siegler and Siegler, 1976). A similar pattern of differences is also evident when verbal behaviour is observed (Putnam and Mc-Callister, 1980). It is unclear; however, to what extent the results of previous studies on gender differences can be generalized to emotional behaviour on the job. Previous research has described behaviour in social settings. In contrast, the present study focuses on settings in which feeling rules emerge as part of an organizational or occupational socialization process. Thus, a first question of this study is whether gender differences-which have been documented in other settings-will be evident in the emotions conveyed when service employees interact with customers.
If gender differences due to sex role socialization transfer to behaviour on the job, then female employees can be expected to display more warmth and friendliness cues than male employees. In contrast, managerial literature recommends the display of positive and esteem-enhancing emotion by all service employees (Ash, 1984; Peters and Austin, 1985). Thus, organizational feeling rules endeavour to suppress gender differences in emotional expressions. When organizational feeling rules are followed, female and male employees can be expected to smile and greet all customers to a similar extent. Local feeling rules, however, may not overcome gender-linked differences in emotional expression. Sex role socialization is a lifelong process, supported by myriad sources including child rearing policies, parental masculinity and femininity and other parental attributes and behaviours (Looft, 1973; Spence and Helmreich, 1978). In contrast, organizational socialization involves fewer sources of influence and pertains to a narrower domain of behaviours. Thus, it is expected that gender differences will be evident in emotional behaviour on the job.
MANAGING EMOTIONS IN THE WORKPLACE
Do positive and negative attitudes drive performance? By Knowledge@Wharton (2007). Employee’s moods, emotions and overall dispositions have an impact on job performance, decision-making, creativity, turnover, teamwork, negotiations and leadership. People are not isolated emotional islands rather, they bring all of themselves to work, including their traits, moods and emotions and their affective experiences and expressions influence others," according to the study, co-authored by Donald Gibson of Fairfield University's Dolan School of Business. An "affective revolution" has occurred over the last 30 years as academics and managers alike have come to realize that employees' emotions are integral to what happens in an organization which has been doing research in the area of emotions and work dynamics for 15 years. "Everybody brings their emotions to work. You bring your brain to work. You bring your emotions to work. Feelings drive performance. They drive behaviour and other feelings. Think of people as emotion conductors."Three different types of feelings are as follows: (i) Discrete, short-lived emotions, such as joy, anger, fear and disgust (ii) Moods which are longer-lasting feelings and not necessarily tied to a particular cause. A person is in a cheerful mood, for instance or feeling down. (iii) Dispositional, or personality, traits which define a person's overall approach to life. "She's always so cheerful," or "He's always looking at the negative." Emotions don't have to be grand and obvious to have an impact. Subtle displays of emotion, such as a quick frown, can have an effect as well.
EMOTIONS AS AN ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE
Emotion studies in organizations have often focused on the control exerted by organizations over emotions, by individuals over emotions, or the effects of emotions on performance. In this section, two organizational studies were described which examine an aspect of emotion in organizational life rarely acknowledged: the role of emotion in creating and maintaining organizational hierarchies. Emotional competence and leadership excellence at Johnson and Johnson: The Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Study by Kathleen Cavallo, PsyD. The study revealed a strong relationship between superior performing (HiPR) leaders and emotional competence, supporting theorist’s suggestions that the social, emotional and relational competency set commonly referred to as emotional intelligence, is a distinguishing factor in leadership performance. Leaders who received performance ratings of 4.1 or greater on a 5-point scale were rated significantly higher than other participants in all four of the emotional intelligence dimensions of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and social skills by supervisors and subordinates. Peers found HiPR leaders to be stronger in the self-awareness and self-management clusters. Six competencies were found to distinguish HiPR’s across all three rater groups, specifically, Self-confidence, achievement orientation, initiative, leadership, influence and change catalyst.
Emotion is often described either in psychological terms as an individualized, intrapersonal response to some stimulus, or, by contrast, a socially constituted phenomenon, depending upon the disciplinary perspective one adopts. The power relations pre sent in patriarchal organizational forms bring men into direct. Control of others’ emotions and in shaping the emotional labor of others. The experiences of competition and domination likewise produce emotions in male s such as elation when they win and anger when their hegemonic position in the hierarchical structure is challenged. Furthermore, there are emotionalized zones in organizational settings that invite male expressions of emotion such as retirement parties and other ceremonials and the “forceful” defense of one’s social place in meetings.
Organizational actors quite rationally draw upon their emotions to evaluate their circumstances. This ensures that members will behave in ways that are consistent with their self-interests. Hence, according to this perspective, emotion underwrites rational decision making and enables employees to behave in ways that are rational for them. The behaviors of leaders and decision makers have been described as psychologically defensive reactions to unconscious fears and anxieties and unresolved early life experiences (Fineman, 1993, 1996; Morgan, 1986). As an example, authoritarian leadership styles has been interpreted as manifestations of repressed hostility and anxiety derived from the experience of being reared by harsh disciplinarian caretakers. Other defensive posture s adopted by leaders in response to unrecognized and unconscious fear, anger, or envy may include coalition building, influence tactics or divide and conquer forms of control (Zaleznick, 1970). A leader’s unconsciously motivate d destructive impulses may have the effect of undermining cooperation among members and create a culture that perpetuates rivalry and competition at a level that may be damaging to organizational goal attainment. Emotions, to be sure, do not emerge in isolation and they are not merely inner phenomena. They have objects and they occur within some context.
The role of communicating social emotions accompanying apologies in forgiveness by Hareli and Eisikovits (2006). Apologies are an effective strategy used by transgressors to restore relationships with an injured party. Apologies are often motivated by emotions the transgressor feels in relation to the situation. We report the results of two studies that examined how an injured person’s knowledge that an apology was driven by one or more of the social emotions of guilt, shame and pity affected forgiveness. Findings suggest that the knowledge that guilt and/or shame motivated the apology increased forgiveness. In contrast, knowledge that pity induced the apology decreased forgiveness. These findings are consistent with the view that the communication of emotions has the social function of monitoring and shaping social relationships.
The effectiveness of an apology in achieving the resolution of a social conflict depends on, among other things, verbal and non verbal components included in the apologetic message and on how this message is perceived by the Injured Party (IP). Indeed, apologies may include combinations of different components such as acceptance of responsibility for the misdeed that led to the break-up of the relationship, expressions of caring about what had happened and offers of help. Research indicates that the extent to which an apology contains such components determines the level of forgiveness it achieves. An additional factor that determines an apology’s effectiveness is information concerning how the transgressor feels about his/her wrongdoing toward the IP and the extent to which such feelings instigated the apology. Because emotions convey to others important information concerning the state of the person experiencing them (Oatley and Johnson-Laird, 1987; Parkinson et al., 2005), emotions known to prompt an apology can determine the impression an apology makes on its audience should he become aware of them.
A transgressor may experience a myriad of emotions following his/her undesirable act toward the IP. Such feelings typically arise from considerations of the way one’s actions hurt the offended party and damaged the relationships with him/her. These feelings can also arise from assessment of personal implications the misdeed carries for the transgressor. That is, how the transgressor’s character is going to be perceived by others including the IP following what that transgressor did to the IP. The present study provides evidence that information concerning the social emotions that motivate an apology serves the social function of affecting the likelihood of repairing broken social relationships following a transgression. It implies that people are sensitive to this information and consider it when deciding how much they forgive a transgressor. This is in line with the more general view that the function of the communication of emotion is to monitor and shape social relationships.
The most important organizational factors that can direct behaviors, attitudes and interactions of nurses in order to promote Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) (Rezaiean, 2010). This study was conducted at Baqiat-Allah Hospital (one of the most important hospitals in Tehran) from 2009/03 to 2009/09. This is a research (based on its purpose) and descriptive research (based on the data collection method). The structural equation model was used to analyze data. Also a confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the validity of the variables. The mediating role of commitment and job satisfaction in the relationship between organizational justice and OCB was confirmed. As a result, organizational justice has an indirect, positive and meaningful effect on OCB. Organizational trust was not an intermediary variable in the relationship between justice and OCB. Also the organizational justice effect on OCB did not have a significantly direct effect (p<0.05). Regarding the distinct role of OCB of service quality of hospitals and health service centers, attitude and behavioral factors such as job satisfaction, commitment and especially organizational justice and trust should be considered as shown in this research.
Akinyele and Taiwo (2007) confirmed that training of manpower is a major prerequisite for any organization who wants to achieve maximum productivity through the efficient and effective performance of employee. Employee can only perform better through the acquisition of skills, knowledge and ability from training programmed. This research attempts to find out whether staff training has any implication in job performance, behavior, attitudes, skills, knowledge and achievement of the goals of a business organization in Nigeria. It revealed that training has a high positive impact on employee and reduces the nature of hazards on the job in the accomplishment of corporate objectives and it made recommendations which aimed at improving the job performance of staff with regard to training.
Okafor (2007) reported that Organizational Characteristics and Performance in Nigerian Quoted Companies. This study was designed to evaluate the relationships between organizational characteristics and performance. This model was tested using Nigerian samples and the 4-S model was found to be positively related to organizational performance. It was recommended that employees should be encouraged to apply their training in the work place; while the executive management should put their individual and collective skills at the disposal of their various organizations. Finally, it was recommended that the unwholesome position of Nigeria’s value system makes moral rearmament an imperative for organizational survival and national rebirth. It is hoped that these measures would provide the impetus for efficient utilization of human and other resources at organizational and national levels.
EMPLOYEE’S NEED IN ORGANIZATION
Research consistently substantiates the effectiveness of financial incentives on job performance, although companies need to consider the issue of job quantity versus quality and also be aware of the limitations of financial incentives. Employees can have vastly different motives for acquiring wealth including using money to fulfill psychological needs. Thus, it is not surprising that money alone is less an effective motivator for employees than when it is used in conjunction with non-financial reinforcements (Gopinath, 2011c). Akinyele (2007) reported that an initial endeavor to explore needs satisfaction: An effective tool for workers commitment to work. Inspite of the motivational strategies available and employed in organizations, the issue of employee performance and productivity is still very much questionable. This is because what motivates one individual may not necessarily be what motivates another individual (s). It was observed that a greater number of respondents supported the notion that high employee performance and productivity is a function of need satisfaction (motivation). These findings appear to be useful in furthering the understanding of the complexity associated with the strategy to the realities of result oriented organization environment by recommending that organizations should accord priority attention to the introduction of good motivational package (such as: good remuneration, instituting other monetary awards, higher fringe benefits package and other financial rewards, timely promotion, cafeteria, flextime, employee involvement, etc.) to enhance higher productivity and commitment to work.
MEASUREMENT OF CRITICAL EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Gopinath (2011b) reported that the measurement of Critical Emotional intelligence varies widely in both their content and in their method of assessment. In particular, emotional intelligence measures tend to use a self-report personality-based approach, an informant approach, or an ability-based assessment procedure. In this review, the measurement and psychometric properties of four of the major emotional intelligence measures are Emotional Competence Inventory, Emotional Quotient Inventory, Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale and Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test.
THE SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SIDES OF EMOTION IN ORGANIZATIONS
Psychology has been credited with much of the theoretical development of emotions as an area of inquiry. Psychologically based theories have variously proposed that emotions are instinctively driven responses to some stimulus which physiological sensations of the body are emotions or that cognitive appraisal of a stimulus define what an emotion is. The premise of these theories holds that emotions are intrapersonal, individual phenomena that are located in the body. The stronghold of psychological theories for shaping our understanding of emotions is evident from the metaphors used to de scribe emotion. Within the psychodynamic tradition, for example, poorly understood emotional behaviors have been described as diseases of the mind, creating an association between emotions and mental illness (Averill, 1990). Psychoanalytic interpretations have been used also to explain individual and group processes in work organizations. The behaviors of leaders and decision makers have been described as psychologically defensive reactions to unconscious fears and anxieties and unresolved early life experiences. As an example, authoritarian leadership styles have been interpreted as manifestations of repressed hostility and anxiety derived from the experience of being reared by harsh disciplinarian caretakers (Fineman, 1996). Other defensive postures adopted by leaders in response to unrecognized and unconscious fear, anger, or envy may include coalition building, influence tactics or divide and conquer forms of control A leader’s unconsciously motivated destructive impulses may have the effect of undermining cooperation among members and create a culture that perpetuates rivalry and competition at a level that may be damaging to organizational goal attainment.
A review on factors influence in work environment discussion is based in the field of leadership, social support networks, task autonomy and emotions in a technical work environment which is the process of linking the human resource function with the strategic objectives of the organization in order to improve performance. The Human Resource (HR) policies and practices become linked with the strategic management process of the organization that in turn leads to a HR strategy. This is supposed to add a sustainable competitive advantage to the organization and was found to have a positive influence on organizational and individual performance (Gopinath, 2011d).
CONCLUSION
The opening paragraph of this essay provides a clue to other areas sorely in need of investigation such as the neglected issue of the everyday workplace emotions of employees and an analytical treatment of negative emotions (Domagalski, 1999). Apart from those emotions prescribed by organizations and subject to management control, there has been no systematic examination of everyday emotions experienced by and among employees in their daily routines and interactions with one another. There is so much to know about the range and intensity of feelings experienced and expressed by employees as they come together in the workplace , the strength and validity of the effects of emotional contagion and the implications this may have for group functioning and the effects of power and status on felt and displayed emotions. It may be necessary to move beyond traditional scientific methods to extract the depth and complexity of these data. Stories, diaries and using oneself as subject have been recommended as worthy methods; a move away from word-dominated media to unconventional visual forms such as paintings and photographs has also been proposed. The books reviewed here have moved the discussion of emotions in organizations toward the front of the stage.