Abstract: Surveys and direct field observation were carried out to determine the endangered chewing stick species in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The survey involved the use of semi-structured interviews which were conducted with a fairly open framework that allowed for focused, conversational and two-way communication. Also group interviews were conducted in order to determine group consensus on the chewing sticks plant species. The relative abundance of the identified species was determined by the time it would take to physically come across the plant specimen in the study area. Results obtained revealed that a total of 49 plant species belonging to 28 different families were observed to be in use as chewing sticks. Most of these species were indigenous species; previous studies had revealed that these species were essentially rich in various natural products. The relative abundance test revealed that, 33, 51 and 16%, respectively, of the chewing sticks species were presently common, frequent and occasional on the abundance scale used in this study. Most of the species were uncultivated species whose wildlings were usually preserved in the study area and were in high demand in the study area. Other products widely derived from these species in the study area were identified. Thus the endangered species required urgent conservation efforts. Features that could enhance their conservation in the study area were defined.
INTRODUCTION
In the recent times, the importance of ethnobotanical knowledge in the management of natural resources is increasingly being stressed (Berkes et al., 2000). Study by Reyes-Garcia et al. (2007) suggested that the conservation of biological diversity can be more successful by finding allies. Previous studies by Alcorn (1993) and Berkes et al. (1995) had asserted that the indigenous people were potential allies in the conservation of biological diversity. Research suggests that forest products provide them with nutrition, medicine, construction materials, forage and income (Peters et al., 1989; Godoy and Bawa, 1993). Thus, suggesting a correlation between biological and cultural diversities (Lairal, 2002; Maffi, 2005).
Despite all these, there has been an unprecedented erosion of biological diversity and indigenous knowledge in the recent times. This erosion, according to Cox (2000) and Maffi (2002), represents the irreversible loss of humanity`s heritage and diversity.
Chewing sticks constitutes one of the plant medicine derived from the forest, which is widely used for dental care throughout the entire West African region. In Nigeria where deforestation rate is currently unprecedented, there has been little or no efforts made to assess chewing sticks botanicals with a view to determine the endanger species among them and propose strategies that would conserve such. These constitute the aims of this study.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Surveys and direct field observation were carried out as done in the previous research (Lipp, 1989; Kayode et al., 1997) between June 2006 and May 2007. Ekiti State (Fig. 1, 2) was divided into three zones based on the existing political delineation (Kayode, 2004). The zones were Ekiti Central (EC), Ekiti North (EN) and Ekiti South (ES). In each zone, five rural communities that were still relatively far from urban influence were selected. The communities were, (1) Epe, (2) Ipole-Iloro, (3) Ido-Ile, (4) Aba-Igbogun, (5) Araromi-Obu, (6) Eda, (7) Iro-Oke, (8) Aba-Oyo, (9) Ogbese, (10) Omi-Ogun, (11) Igede, (12) Itapaji, (13) Ipere, (14) Ifinsin and (15) Ewu. In each community, twenty respondents were randomly selected and interviewed. The interviews were conducted with a fairly open framework that allowed for focused, conversational and two-way communication (Moinar, 1989).
Also in each community, group interviews were conducted in order to determine group consensus on the chewing sticks plant species. Four groups, each of which consisted of five individuals were interviewed in each community. Key informants made up of health, community development and forestry officials in each zone as well as dental officials of the Ekiti State Ministry of Health were also interviewed to provide secondary information on the use of chewing sticks in the study area.
Voucher specimens of the botanicals identified as sources of chewing sticks by the respondents were collected identified and relevant information on them were documented. The specimen were later treated and deposited at the herbarium of the Department of Plant Science, University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekit, Nigeria.
The relative abundance of the identified species in each community was
determined by the time it would take to physically come across the plant
specimen. Plant specimens that could be sited between 0 min to 1 h were
regarded as common (C). Those, which could be seen within 1 to 5 h, were regarded as frequent (F). Also, those species that would take between
5 to 24 h to be seen were regarded as occasional (O).
| Fig. 1: | Map of Nigeria showing Ekiti State of Nigeria |
| Fig. 2: | Map of Ekiti State Showing the study sites used, A: Ekiti Central, B: Ekiti South, C: Ekiti North, (1) Epe, (2) Ipole-iloro, (3) Ido-Ile, (4) Aba-igbogun, (5) Araromi obu, (6) E da, (7) Iro-oke (8) Ipole, (9) Ogbese, (10) Omi-ogun, (11) Igede, (12) Itapaji, (13) Ipere, (14) Ifinsin and (15) Ewu |
Field information was confirmed (Balick and Cox, 1996) and compared with literature (Oliver, 1960; Gbile, 1986; Keay, 1989; Gill, 1992; Kayode, 2006) and the information obtained was analyzed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results obtained from the study area revealed that a total of 49 plant species belonging to 28 different families were observed to be in use as chewing sticks (Table 1). Most of these species were indigenous species, only 13 species (27%) were exotic species, thus supporting the previous assertion of Kayode (2004) that in Ekiti State, Nigeria, preference for botanicals were skewed towards the local species than the exotics. Species identified in this study were noted for their folk dental medicinal values whose knowledge have now constituted parts of the peoples culture that is passed from one generation to another. Previous studies had revealed that these species were essentially rich in various natural products (Table 2).
The relative abundance test (Table 3) revealed that,
33, 51 and 16%, respectively, of the chewing sticks species were presently
common, frequent and occasional on the abundance scale used in this study.
Among the common species, C. annum L., C. aurantifolia (Christm
and Panzer) Swingle, M. indica L. and T. cacao L. were cultivated
for their fruits which are major sources of income in the study area.
A. indica, A. Juss and S. siamea (Lam.) Irwin and
Barneby were cultivated to serve as windbreakers and shade providers,
G. sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp was planted to provide yam stakes
and fodder, J. curcas L. and J. gossypiifolia L. were cultivated
to serve as boundary plants and erosion control, V. amygdalina
Delile was cultivated to provide leafy vegetables, D. eracta L.
as ornamental plant while A. laxiflora (Benth.) Pax and K. Hoffm.
and T. orientalis (L.) Blume as well as O. gratissimum L.
though not cultivated but were preserved as sources of timber and medicinal
leafy vegetables, respectively.
| Table 1: | List of chewing sticks botanicals in Ekiti State, Nigeria |
Also among the frequently occurring species, A. occidentale L.,
B. sapida K.D. Koenig, P. guajava L. and P. gratissima
Gaertn. were cultivated for their fruits. A. vera (L.) Burm. F.,
H. rosa-sinensis L. were cultivated for medicinal and ornamental respectively
while J. multifida L. was cultivated as boundary plant and for
the control of erosion. Other plant species in the frequent categories
were not cultivated but their wildlings were usually preserved in the
study area.
| Table 2: | Folk-medicinal value and chemical compositions of the chewing sticks plant species identified in Ekiti State, Nigeria |
| Table 3: | Relative abundance of chewing sticks plant species in the study area |
| Table 4: | Chewing sticks plant species perceived to require conservation in the study area |
The species occurring occasionally, with the exception of C. portoricensis
(Jacq.) Benth, were indigenous but uncultivated species (Table
3) whose wildlings were usually preserved in the study area. There is a
high demand for these species. Table 4 gives the description
of other products widely derived from these species in the study area. Thus
these species could be said to be endangered in the study area. They require
urgent efforts towards their conservation. Some of the species already possessed
features that could enhance their conservation (Table 5-11).
However, further research activities are still required to develop deep understanding
of the life cycles, pollination and dispersal mechanisms in most of these plants.
Shinwari and Khan (2000) had advocated similar strategies
in a study conducted in Islamabad. The maintenance of the original self-perpetuating
populations, as previously advocated by Moore (1990) would
also serve as a sustainable in situ conservation method. The conservation
of these chewing sticks plant species especially those identified as being endangered
is now desirable. All these strategies would slow down and/or circumvent the
present rate of biodiversity loss. Swanson (1992) had
previously warned that the loss of biodiversity means the loss of options for
all of us and for future generations. The loss of species identified as been
endangered in this study should be prevented.
| Table 5: | Perceived conservation features of A. boonei in the study area |
| Table 6: | Perceived conservation features of A. leiocarpus in the study area |
| Table 7: | Perceived conservation features of B. curiacea in the study area |
| Table 8: | Perceived conservation features of C. portoricensis in the study area |
| Table 9: | Perceived conservation features of C. zambesicus in the study area |
| Table 10: | Perceived conservation features of H. madagascariensis in the study area |
| Table 11: | Perceived conservation features of Z. xanthoxyloides in the study area |