Abstract: Plant macroremains were separated from nine tombs in an elite cemetery at locality HK 6 in Hierakonpolis. Human and animal skeletal remains were found in all tombs. The tombs belonged to Predynastic cultural period between Naqada IIA and Naqada IIIC1 (3550-3400 B.C./3200-3050 B.C.). A total of 1984 plant macroremains were identified. This botanical assemblage has been attributed to 23 plant taxa and classified into wild edible fruits, cultivated crops, wild herbs, wood and charcoal. Highest number and percentage of plant remains as well as number of plant species were recorded from tombs 1, 3 and 11. The current study shows that the Predynastic inhabitants have depended heavily on native trees as sources for wood and fuel, e.g., Acacia nilotica (L.) Del., Ficus sycomorus L., Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Krast., Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. It was possible to reconstruct characteristic habitats and plant communities flourished nearby Wadi Abu Suffian: 1) a contracted desert vegetation dominated by Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew, Fagonia bruguieri DC. and Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Krast.: 2) a contracted ground water-bound desert vegetation included Acacia nilotica (L.) Del., Desmostachya (L.) Stapf/Imperata Rauesch., Ficus sycomorus L. and Tamarix sp.; 3) swampy habitat characterized by stands of Phragmites australis (Cavi) Trin. ex Steud., Desmostachya/Imperata, Cyperus alopecuroides Rott. and Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge. Remains of conifer trees: Cedrus libani Loud., Cupressus sempervirens L. and Pinus halepensis Mill. have been found in very small amounts. They could have been introduced into Egypt from the Levant.
INTRODUCTION
Hierakonpolis, a Predynastic archaeological site in Upper Egypt (3800-3500 B.C.) is considered by many archaeologists and historians to be the locality and time for the initiation of the Pharaonic civilization (Hoffman, 1982). It includes many famous localities viz. 6, 11, 11C, 24A, 25d, 29, 29A and 43. Some archaeobotanical studies have been done on these localities (El-Hadidi, 1982; Fahmy, 1995; Fahmy and Barakat, 2000; Fahmy, 2003; Fahmy, 2005; Friedman et al., 2002). In this study we will focus on the plant material retrieved from the elite cemetery at locality HK 6. This study shows different plant species which had been selected by Ancient Egyptians and placed into their tombs. Also, it will shed the light on the past relationship between Man and plants in Predynastic Hierakonpolis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
he area of Hierakonpolis archaeological site (5000-3100 B.C.) is about 144 km2, in the Southern sub-province of the Western Desert of Egypt. It is located about 113 km North of Aswan, between the modern towns of Esna and Edfu (latitude 25° 05’ and longitude 32° 45’-50, Fig. 1). It is stretched for about 1.5 km along the low desert on the edge of the modern cultivation and extended 3.5 km into the Western Desert along the ancient drainage course of Wadi Abu Suffian. Locality 6 is a large cemetery area which lies about 2.1 km S.W. of the edge of the cultivation on the west bank of the Nile. The site occupies relatively flat terrace of late Pleistocene silts and is flanked by steep sandstone hills to its east and west. The site extends up the Wadi Abu Suffian for about 200 m long and about 35 m wide. The total area occupied by the various components of locality 6 is about 18,000 m2 (Adams, 2000). Table 1 shows dating and type of burials found in each tomb within the context of locality HK 6.
Climate of the study area: The western desert in Egypt is one of the most arid parts of the globe (Bornkamm and Kehl, 1989), as its full extension is part of Zonobiome 3, the zone of subtropical arid deserts (Walter, 1984). This great aridity results from its distant position from seas and absence of high altitudes which may attract orographic rain (Zahran and Willis, 1992). According to the (Climatic Normals of Egypt; Anonymous, 1960); the climatic records of two metrological stations (Aswan in the South and Qena in the North) of Hierakonpolis showed that, the area has extremely arid climate (high temperature, low relative humidity, high evaporation and very low rainfall, 1.4-5.3 mm year–1). Two strong thunder storms occurred during May and October 1979. These exceptional events results in heavy rainfalls (175 mm) according to Luxur metrological records.
| Fig. 1: | Location of the archaeological site of Hierakonpolis and modern cities |
| Table 1: | Type of burials and dating of tombs at cemetery HK 6 |
Present vegetation of the study area: Three zones of recent vegetation are recognized around the archaeological site of Hierakonpolis. The first zone constitutes the cultivated lands on the flood plain of the Nile. Some field crops are cultivated there: Saccharum officinarum L., Zea mays L. and Gossypium barbadense L. as summer crops. Triticum vulgare Vill., Hordeum vulgare L., Trifolium alexandrinum L. and Medicago sativa L. are winter crops. Many vegetables like Eruca sativa Mill., Allium cepa L., Allium sativum L., Corchorus olitorius L., Cucumis sativus L., Cucumis melo L., Citrullus vulgare Schrad and Solanum lycopersicum L. are cultivated in limited areas. The second zone occupies the border line between desert and cultivation. Considerable areas are left fallow; being archaeological sites of different periods. The underground water is about 40 cm below surface providing a favorable habitat for the growth of dense populations of Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch., Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf and Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steud. with few dispersed trees of Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge, T. aphylla (L.) H. Karst. and Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile. The third zone is an arid desert habitat with scanty plant cover consisting of a few scattered shrubs confined to the main channel of the wadi. The presence of this type of vegetation can be attributed to the absence of precipitation and the availability of underground water table. Salsola baryosma (Roem. and Schult.) Dandy and Pulicaria crispa (Forssk.) Oliv. are the dominant species; common associates are Fagonia indica Burm. f, F. bruguieri DC., Hyoscyamus muticus L. and Morettia philaena (Del.) DC. Annual species recorded are Launaea capitata (Spreng.) Dandy and Astragalus vogelii (Webb) Bornm..
Archaeobotany of cemetery HK 6: Previous archaeobotanical studies have been done on botanical material retrieved from tombs at the cemetery at locality HK 6 (El-Hadidi, 1982) M. Nabil El Hadidi of Cairo University Herbarium was responsible for identifying the plant species from Hoffman’s work in the cemetery during 1979-1982. Results of this analysis showed floristic features of the site as a list of plant taxa grew during the Predynastic period (El-Hadidi, 1982). Remains of the following species were identified: Acacia nilotica (L.) Del., Ficus sycomorus L., Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge, Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr., Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf., Ceruana pratensis Forssk., Juncus sp., Linum usitatissimum L., Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf, Phragmites australis (Cavi) Trin. Ex Steud., Hordeum vulgare L., Cyperus alopecuroides Rott., Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart. and Phoenix dactylifera L.
In another concept to identify the past relationship between Man and plants, Fahmy and Barakat (2000) studied plant remains from tombs 2, 3, 6 and 11. This showed the presence of remains of crops (emmer wheat: Triticum dicoccon Schrank, free threshing wheat: Triticum aestivum/durum and flax: Linum usitatissimum L. Wild taxa are represented by Acacia nilotica (L.) Del., Ceruana pratensis Forssk, Juncus sp. and Tamarix sp.
During the seasons of 1979, 1980, 1982 and 1985 more samples for plant macroremains analysis were gathered from locality HK 6 and kept at Cairo University Herbarium. The current study aims at the analysis of plant macro-remains from tombs 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11 at cemetery HK6.
Recovery and sampling of plant remains: Seventy two samples of soil were retrieved from nine tombs at locality 6. They were sieved through 2 mm sieve to separate shreds, stones, large pieces of charcoal and wood.
Identification of the plant remains: The samples were sorted into components using stereoscopic binocular (magnification: 6-100X). Each sample was divided into little bits which were examined under the binocular objective using fine brush and needles. Desiccated and charred wood, branches, cereal chaff and fruits were separated in plastic boxes or in glasses (40x15 mm). Desiccated wood and branch fragments were moistened in glycerol/alcohol for 24 h. Thin free hand or microtome sections were made for every specimen. Sections mounted in Canada balsam or in glycerin-gel. Charred wood fragments were examined under reflected light bright field/dark field microscope on transverse, tangential and radial sections along fresh hand-made fractures.
Sections of desiccated or charred wood, branches, culms, rhizome fragments were identified by comparing them with a collection of modern reference slides kept at the University of Beni Suef. References of plant anatomy were used in the identification along with drawings and photographs from archaeobotanical and anatomical studies viz. (El-Hadidi and Waly, 1991; Fahn, 1982; Fahn et al., 1986; Greiss, 1957; Neumann et al., 2001).
Seeds, fruits, inflorescence and leaves are compared with modern reference collection at the Herbaria of Cairo, Helwan and Beni-Suef Universities. Drawings and photographs from floristic, taxonomic and archaeobotanical publications were used to identify the plant remains under study viz. Boulos (1999, 2000, 2002, 2005), Cope and Hosni (1991), Fahmy (1995), Taeckholm (1974) and Zohary (1966, 1972). Nomenclature and citation of wild species are according to Boulos (1999, 2005).
RESULTS
Morphological investigation reveals the presence of well preserved plant macro-remains in nine tombs at the cemetery area of locality HK 6. A total of 1984 plant macroremains were identified. This botanical assemblage has been attributed to 23 plant taxa and classified into: wild edible fruits; cultivated crops; wild herbs and grasses; wood and charcoal. Highest number and percentage of plant remains as well as number of plant species were recorded from tombs 1, 3 and 11 (Table 2). This is attributed to the relatively high number of samples collected from each of these tombs.
A total of 1635 plant fragments belonged to 19 plant species were identified from tomb 11. In tomb 3, 115 plant macroremains of 9 plant species were isolated from eight samples. Five species were identified from 10 samples extracted from tomb 1. A small number of plant macroremains were identified from Tombs 7, 9 and 10.
Edible fruits: Stones of two edible fruit trees were recorded from tomb 11. Sidder (Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.) was represented by 6 stones, while balanos (Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.) was occurred by 2 endocarps (Table 3). Fruits of sidder and balanos trees were common offerings in tombs from Ancient Egypt and used as food stuff (De Varatavan and Asensi Amoros, 1997). Both taxa were recorded from archaeological Predynastic settlements (Fahmy, 1995, 2003, 2005; Täckholm, 1976; Wetterstrom, 1984).
| Table 2: | Number of identified macroremains/species in tombs of locality 6 |
| Table 3: | Number of identified edible fruit macroremains/species at locality 6 |
| Table 4: | Number of identified desiccated macroremains/species of cultivated plants at locality 6 |
Cultivated crops: Desiccated spikelets, rachis internodes and glumes of barley were recorded from tombs 2 and 11 (Table 4). Culm fragments of a cereal were retrieved from tombs 1 and 11. Presence of cereal chaff in tombs could be attributed to mud brick which had been used in the construction of tombs. Available archaeobotanical evidence from Predynastic Adaima in Upper Egypt showed that mud had been mixed with different cereal for lining floors and roofs (Newton, 2004; Willcox and Fornte, 1999). Linen textile was recorded in tombs 2, 3 and 5. Flax was the main source for wrapping mummies.
| Table 5: | Number of identified culms, rhizomes, branches, roots, inflorescence and leaf macroremains/species at locality 6 |
| Table 6: | Number of identified wood and branch macroremains/species at locality 6 |
Wild species: Remains of wild grasses, rushes and herbs were recorded in tombs at locality 6 (Table 5). Floral heads and branches of Ceruana pratensis were found in tombs 1, 2 and 11. However, it represents 30% of the total amount of plant macroremains recorded at HK 6. This plant was a common herb growing on the Nile. It was used for decorating bouquets in offerings, a fodder for animals as well as for making mats and baskets (Germer, 1985).
Culm fragments of Juncus sp. were found in tombs 2, 3, 5 and 9. Juncus matting were discovered wrapping burials from the worker cemetery at HK43 (Fahmy, 2003, 2005). Remains of culm fragments of Phragmites australis and Cyperus alopecuroides were found in tombs 3 and 11. Both species were used for making mats and baskets. (Greiss, 1957). Remains of ropes made of leaves of halfa grasses (Desmostachya/Imperata) were separated from tombs 5 and 11. Ropes made from the fibers of date palms (Phoenix dactylifera) were recorded from tombs 5, 6 and 7.
Woody plants: Charred and desiccated wood fragments of 13 native trees and shrubs as well as introduced taxa were retrieved from tombs 1, 3, 6, 9, 10 and 11 (Table 6). Desiccated and charred wood fragments of Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. were retrieved from tombs 1, 3, 10 and 11. Wood and charcoal of this tree represented 20% of the total amount of plant remains recorded at HK 6. In Predynastic Hierakonpolis, Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. was a very important source of fuel and it has been used also for making posts in fences around fields and animal farms (Fahmy, 2003, 2005).
Desiccated and charred wood fragments of Ficus sycomorus L. were separated from tombs 3, 10 and 11 representing about 15% of the total amount of plant macroremains at HK 6. This type of wood was described as soft wood and used to make woody coffins (Germer, 1985; Murray, 2000). Wood fragments of Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Krast., T. nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. were retrieved from tombs 3, 6, 9 and 11. Few remains of Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew and Fagonia bruguieri DC were isolated from tomb 11 which could be interpreted that they were of rare occurrence and use too. This study showed that the natural vegetation around the site was rich and dominated by native trees of Acacia nilotica (L.) Del., Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., Ficus sycomorus L., Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Krast, T. nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge, T. passerinoides Del. ex Desv., T. tetragyna Ehrenb. and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. A few wood fragments of introduced trees of Cedrus libani A. Rich., Cupressus sempervirens L. and Pinus halepensis Mill. were retrieved from tomb 11 only.
DISCUSSION
Previous archaeobotanical studies on a Predynastic worker cemetery at locality HK 43 in Hierakonpolis (Fahmy, 2003) showed that economy of the site was based mainly on cultivation of cereals like emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon Schrank) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) as well as free threshing wheat (Triticum durum/aestivum) and naked barley (Hordeum vulgare var. nudum). In cemetery HK 6, we have recorded few remains of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), while Fahmy and Barakat (2000) reported the presence of emmer wheat remains from the same cemetery. Variation in cereal remain contents in both cemeteries needed a clarification. We think that presence of more cereal taxa and great amount of cereal chaff at HK 43 should be attributed to existence of pillows and matting fragments filled up with thick layers of cereal chaff.
Edible wild fruits of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. were gathered by inhabitants of the site. From Predynastic times onwards, both fruits have been much appreciated and are often recorded among the food offerings in Dynastic tombs (De Vartavan and Asensi Amoros, 1997).
In cemetery HK 6, culm remains of Juncus sp. and Cyperus alopecuroides Rott. were discovered. Both taxa have been used in ancient Egypt to make matting and basketry (Greiss, 1957). The culms of Juncus were knitted together producing mats in which human bodies were wrapped (Fahmy, 2003). The genus Juncus includes 9 species in the flora of Egypt (Boulos, 2005). They grow in marshy places, often in shallow brackish semi saline soil. Also, some wild herbs including grasses, sedges and rushes separated from this locality HK 6 are water loving plants: Ceruana pratensis Forssk., Cyperus alopecuroides Rott. and Phragmites. Ceruana pratensis Forssk. grows on muddy terraces of the Nile (Zahran and Willis, 1992). Phragmites form stands on banks and canals of the Nile. It grows in swampy habitats in the Nile Valley and in the deserts (Boulos, 2005).
In addition, the current study would suggest that another characteristic habitats and plant communities flourished nearby the site:
| • | A contracted desert vegetation widespread on both sides of Wadi Abu-Suffian. Plant assemblage of this habitat included: Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del, Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew, Fagonia bruguieri DC. and Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Krast. |
| • | Contracted ground water-bound desert vegetation dominated by Acacia nilotica, Desmostachya/ Imperata, Ficus sycomorus L. and Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Krast |
| • | Available archaeobotanical records from cemetery HK 6 and another ones at Predynastic Hierakonpolis show that ancient inhabitants of the area gathered their wood requirements from the surrounding habitats along the Nile, the wadis of Abu Suffian and El Khamasini (Fahmy, 2003). |
The current study shows that they have depended heavily on native trees as sources of wood like Acacia nilotica (L.) Del, Ficus sycomorus L. Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Krast. Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge. and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. Fragments of introduced wood were found in tomb 11 only. These remains have been attributed to the following conifer trees: Cedrus libani A. Rich., Cupressus sempervirens L. and Pinus halepensis Mill. These genera were not native to the Flora of Egypt and there was no clear evidence in the archaeobotanical literature to suggest that these taxa were grown in Ancient Egypt. They could have been introduced from the Levant. This would explain rarity of conifer wood in our samples. Also, it would suggest that tomb 11 could have been belonged to a person of a higher rank in the society of Hierakonpolis.
CONCLUSIONS
This study sheds the light on the past relationship between Predynastic inhabitants of the site and the surrounding natural vegetation. The inhabitants depended on collecting wild fruits like Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. as food supplements to cereals which had been cultivated intensively during this period. The small number of emmer wheat and barley recorded in this study could not give us a clear picture of cereal cultivation in Predynastic Hierakonpolis. However, we know from previous studies (Fahmy, 2003, 2004) that there was intensive cultivation of cereals (including emmer wheat, hulled barley, free threshing wheat and barley) in Predynastic Hierakonpolis. Integration of palaeoethnobotanical data of this study with these obtained from the worker cemetery at HK 43 (Fahmy, 2003) would confirm adoption of a specialized subsistence strategy. Approach of this subsistence is based on cultivation of cereal crops, especially emmer wheat, herding of livestock and collection of tubers and fruits from of wild plant species like Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., Cyperus esculentus L. and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.
The inhabitants exploited intensively the arboreal vegetation which existed in accessible stands around the site. Native trees of Acacia nilotica (L.) Del., Tamarix sp. and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. were major sources to cover the needs of wood and fuel? Available archaeobotanical evidence suggested that moister climatic conditions prevailed the area of Hierakonpolis during the Predynastic period. Butzer (1959) concluded that the desert area between Esna and Idfu, west of the Nile, received a mean annual rainfall c. 50-100 mm year–1 during the period between 5000-3000 BC. This amount of precipitation was quite enough to support the growth of the reconstructed plant cover.
The natural plant cover at Wadi Abu Suffian depended on surface water and underground water. The prevailing moist conditions must have provided a favorable habitat for the growth of pasture, stimulating the herding of goat or sheep. The natural plant cover around the site has been reconstructed and three distinct vegetation layers have been distinguished: 1) a tree layer included Acacia nilotica (L.) Del., Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del, Ficus sp., Tamarix sp. and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf., a shrub and woody perennial layer which included Fagonia bruguieri DC., Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew, Phragmites australis (Cavi) Trin.ex Steud., Juncus sp., Cyperus alopecuroides Rott. and Desmostachya sp. These taxa are still growing in many localities across the Western Desert of Egypt (Zahran and Willis, 1992). They are the main components of the contracted vegetation, which characterises the Southern part of the desert west of the Nile.