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Review Article
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Listeria monocytogenes Infection in Poultry and its Public Health Importance with Special Reference to Food Borne Zoonoses |
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Kuldeep Dhama,
Amit Kumar Verma,
S. Rajagunalan,
Amit Kumar,
Ruchi Tiwari,
Sandip Chakraborty
and
Rajesh Kumar
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ABSTRACT
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Listeriosis is a disease that causes septicemia or encephalitis in humans, animals and birds. Although, the disease is rare and sporadic in poultry but if occurs then causes septicemia or sometimes localized encephalitis. Occasionally, the disease is seen in young chicks and the causative agent, like in humans and animals, is Listeria monocytogenes. The organism is capable to infect almost all animals and poultry; however, outbreaks of listeriosis are infrequent in birds. It is widely distributed among avian species and chickens, turkeys, waterfowl (geese, ducks), game birds, pigeons, parrots, wood grouse, snowy owl, eagle, canaries, which appear to be the most commonly affected. Chickens are thought to be the carriers of Listeria and also the prime reservoirs for the infection and thus contaminate the litter and environment of the poultry production units. Listeriosis is often noticed along with other poultry diseases such as coccidiosis, infectious coryza, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis and parasitic infections, signifying the opportunistic nature of the organism. Intestinal colonization of poultry and the presence of L. monocytogenes in feces represent a potential source of the organism for listeriosis in ruminants. Man gets infection from raw broiler meat due to Listeria contamination and unhygienic conditions of the processing area, rather than acquiring direct infection from birds. With the changing food habits of the people, the health consciousness is also increasing and since listeriosis has now been recognized as an emerging food borne zoonoses. Therefore, this review has been compiled to make aware the poultry producers and the consumers of poultry meat/products regarding the importance of the disease and its public health significance.
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How
to cite this article:
Kuldeep Dhama, Amit Kumar Verma, S. Rajagunalan, Amit Kumar, Ruchi Tiwari, Sandip Chakraborty and Rajesh Kumar, 2013. Listeria monocytogenes Infection in Poultry and its Public Health Importance with Special Reference to Food Borne Zoonoses. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 16: 301-308.
DOI: 10.3923/pjbs.2013.301.308
URL: https://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=pjbs.2013.301.308
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Received: December 05, 2012;
Accepted: February 14, 2013;
Published: March 22, 2013
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INTRODUCTION
Food-borne zoonotic pathogens of poultry include Salmonella, Campylobacter,
Escherichia coli, Listeria, Arcobacter, Clostridium, Mycobacterium,
Staphylococcus and Cryptosporidium. Among these Listeria can cause
severe and life-threatening complications (Patyal et
al., 2011; Dhama et al., 2008; 2012;
Ta et al., 2012; Kudirkiene
et al., 2013; Asakura et al., 2013).
Listeriosis is a disease that causes septicemia or encephalitis in humans, animals
and birds (Wesley, 2007). In poultry, the disease occurs
sporadically in the form of septicemia or localized encephalitis. Occasionally,
the disease is seen in young chicks and the causative agent, like in humans
and animals, is Listeria monocytogenes. The organism is capable to infect
almost all animals and poultry; however, outbreaks of listeriosis are infrequent
in birds. It is widely distributed among avian species and chickens, turkeys,
waterfowl (geese, ducks), game birds, pigeons, parrots, wood grouse, snowy owl,
eagle, canaries, which appear to be the most commonly affected (Gray,
1958; Dhama et al., 2009; Ivanovic
et al., 2010; Shivaprasad et al., 2007).
Chickens and turkeys are relatively resistant to experimental infection (Bailey
et al., 1990). Chickens are thought to be the carriers of Listeria
and also the prime reservoirs for the infection and thus contaminate the litter
and environment of the poultry production units (Njagi
et al., 2004). Listeriosis is often noticed along with other poultry
diseases such as coccidiosis, infectious coryza, verotoxic E. coli, salmonellosis,
campylobacteriosis and parasitic infections, signifying the opportunistic nature
of the organism (Wesley, 1999; Uyttendaele
et al., 1999; Adzitey et al., 2012;
Cook et al., 2012). Intestinal colonization
of poultry and the presence of L. monocytogenes in feces represent a
potential source of the organism for listeriosis in ruminants (Cooper
et al., 1992; Bailey et al., 1990).
Even though, the organism infects poultry, human beings predominantly gets infection
from raw broiler meat due to Listeria contamination and unhygienic conditions
of the processing area, rather than acquiring direct infection from birds (Kosek-Paszkowska
et al., 2005; Goh et al., 2012).
With the change in food production, processing and distribution, changing food
habits of the people towards ready-to-eat products, increased use of refrigeration
for food preservation, increased interest in organic and natural products including
free range birds, the health consciousness is also increasing and since listeriosis
has now been recognized as an emerging food borne zoonosis (Farber
and Peterkin, 1991; Low and Donachie, 1997; Kataria
et al., 2005; Barbuddhe et al., 2008;
Dhama et al., 2009; Dhama
et al., 2011a; Milillo et al., 2012)
with higher risk to newborns, pregnant women, old people and immune-compromised
individuals. Therefore, this review has been compiled to make aware the poultry
producers and the consumers of poultry meat/products regarding the importance
of the disease and its public health significance.
ETIOLOGY
The causative agent of disease is Listeria monocytogenes, which is gram-positive
and saprophytic bacterium (Milillo et al., 2012)
that tolerates a wide pH range and survives high and low temperatures, however,
is found susceptible to pasteurization at 75°C for 10 sec. It is a small,
facultative anaerobe, coccoid to bacillus-shaped, non-sporulating, motile bacteria
that tends to form long filaments, particularly in older cultures; has flagella
and shows characteristic tumbling motility at 22°C; can grow between 0 and
43°C with an optimal range of 30-37°C and a pH range of 4.5-9.6 (Junttila
et al., 1988; Quinn et al., 1994; Huff
et al., 2005; Sukhadeo and Trinad, 2009;
Bhunia, 2008). There are 16 serotypes; of which serotypes
1 and 4 are mainly responsible for infection in most human and animals. The
organism is widespread in nature and is found in soil, silage, sewage, surface
water and in faeces from domestic/wild animals and birds (Fenlon,
1985; Quinn et al., 1994). Listeria, commonly
found in temperate regions, can survive outside the body of host, under moist
conditions for several years. L. monocytogenes occasionally causes disease
in domestic animals/birds besides infecting many species of rodents and wild
animals. It may also be recovered from the faeces of apparently normal domestic
poultry. There is no evidence for egg transmission and the organism is not shed
in the eggs of even highly inoculated laying hens (Malik
and Vaidya, 2005).
DISEASE IN BIRDS
There is no any pathognomonic sign of listeriosis in birds. However, young
birds have chronic infection, while adult birds die suddenly with septicemia
and occasionally show signs of meningoencephalitis. Young birds, being more
susceptible to listeriosis may have mortality rate up to 40%. Disease incidences
are influenced by factors such as immunosuppression and damp weather conditions,
cold, moist litters etc. (Barnes, 2003; Kahn,
2005). The organism usually shed in all the secretions and excretions of
the infected birds. Disease is transmitted through ingestion of contaminated
feed, water, litter and soil. Infection can also follow inhalation or wound
contamination. In birds, generally, the infection is subclinical and incubation
period is not reported (Gray, 1958; Kurazono
et al., 2003). Signs of infection, if seen, are suggestive of septicemia
and may include depression and listlessness, emaciation, diarrhea and peracute/sudden
death can occur at times (Akanbi et al., 2008).
In the subacute and chronic forms, signs are related to encephalitis that includes
spasms with stretching of neck and back followed by paralysis. Depression, incoordination,
ataxia, torticollis, opisthotonous and other nervous signs are seen in the encephalitic
form. The septicaemic form of listeriosis produces varied lesions, which includes
fibrinous pericarditis, hydropericardium, petechial hemorrhages in proventriculus,
heart and kidney, nephritis, oedema of the lungs, thickening of the airsac walls,
splenic and liver enlargement, bile retention, necrotic areas in the liver and
heart, enteritis and conjunctivitis (Cooper et al.,
1992; Kahn, 2005; Kurazono et
al., 2003). In acute form, lesions are mostly petechial hemorrhage on
the serosa and generalized congestion. With the encephalitic form, no pronounced/visible
gross lesions in brain are seen except gliosis and satellitosis in the cerebellum
and microabscesses in the midbrain and medulla. In some cases, Salpingitis may
also occur in hens (Cooper, 1989; Kurazono
et al., 2003).
DIAGNOSIS
The disease can be diagnosed on the basis of history, clinical signs, post-mortem
lesions and microscopical observation. Recognition of the infection is made
by isolation and identification organism (Kahn, 2005).
Listeria can be isolated easily from the clinical samples except the
encephalitic form of disease in birds. (Cooper, 1989;
OIE, 2006). However, being ubiquitous in nature and able
to survive for long periods outside the body, it may be difficult to determine
the source and spread of infection. Listeria monocytogenes need to be
differentiated from other species of Listeria. Isolation of the bacteria
can be attempted from clinical samples viz., faeces, blood, liver, heart, spleen,
brain, CSF, meconium of newborns or foetus in abortion cases, vomitus, food
stuffs/feed as the case may be (Gray and Killinger, 1966).
It may be necessary to macerate material and then pre-incubate for several months
at 4°C and to subculture at intervals before isolation (Quinn
et al., 1994, Walker, 1999; Walker
et al., 1990). Isolation of the organism by direct culture from
the affected tissues is improved if the specimen is refrigerated, indicating
its psychrophilic nature. Blood/tryptose agar or brain heart infusion medium
is the best for isolation (Walker et al., 1990;
Andrews, 2002). If, the isolation and culture of bacteria
is not possible then, demonstration of antigen in fixed tissues from septicemic
lesion can be done. Chicken embryos are infected readily and can be used for
isolation by culturing via the allantoic cavity. The organism may be identified
by demonstration in smear on Grams staining, biochemical means (peroxide-anti-peroxide
method), Immunofluorescence Test (IFT) or DNA analysis (AOAC,
2000; OIE, 2006; Dhama et
al., 2009); Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) (Tang
et al., 2011). Pathogenicity testing of Listeria isolates
should be done either by in vitro methods such as haemolysis on sheep
blood agar, assay for PI-PLC (Phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C)
activity, CAMP test or by in vivo tests such as inoculation of mice (3
weeks old) through i/p route and inoculation of 10-day old chicken embryo through
CAM (chorioallantoic membrane) route.
Serodiagnostic methods include serum agglutination test, Complement Fixation
Test (CFT), Haemagglutination (HA) test, Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) test,
antibody precipitation test, growth inhibition test and Enzyme Linked Immuosorbent
Assay (ELISA) (Capita et al., 2001; OIE,
2006; Dhama et al., 2009). The detection
of antibodies against a haemolysin called listriolysin O (LLO) by plate or dot-ELISA
has been reported to be useful for diagnosis of both septicaemic and abortion
forms of listeriosis. Modified PI-PLC assay, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
and multiplex PCR based on virulence-associated genes (plcA, prfA
and hlyA) of Listeria spp. have shown great promise as rapid and
reliable diagnostic alternatives (Portnoy et al.,
2002; Agersborg et al., 1997; Dhama
et al., 2009).
PUBLIC HEALTH IMPORTANCE AND FOOD-BORNE ZOONOSIS
The organism is important because of its ability to cause human infections
following contact with infected birds or consumption of contaminated poultry
or poultry products, especially those that are pre-cooked and ready to eat.
Human listeriosis is a worldwide phenomenon, causing several food borne outbreaks,
especially in the developed and under developed countries (Schlech,
2000; Schlech et al., 1983; OIE,
2006). The disease ranks second only to salmonellosis in food poisoning
and the infection has serious implications in very young children (neonates)
and immunocompromised individuals, where the mortality is even higher (30-40%),
making it a serious public health hazard (Barbuddhe et
al., 2008). Milk and animal/poultry meat are considered as major sources
of infection (Goh et al., 2012). Direct contact
with animals/birds is of little importance in transmission except in case of
highly susceptible persons. Person-to-person spread, though recognized, is uncommon.
Consumption of poorly cooked meat and contaminated ready-to-eat poultry products
have been responsible for the disease (Dhama et al.,
2011a-c). As Listeria has the capability
to grow even at low temperatures, refrigeration always wont ensure protection.
This clearly highlights the importance of cooking the food materials to high
temperatures. In humans, the incubation period varies from 1 day to 3 weeks.
The disease condition manifests as meningitis or encephalitis characterized
by high temperature, stiffness of neck, ataxia, tremors, seizures and fluctuating
consciousness. Headache, vomiting, fever, malaise, pneumonia and conjunctivitis
have also been observed (Rocourt and Bille, 1997; Slutsker
and Schuchat, 1999). In personnel, who work at poultry processing plants,
conjunctivitis has been linked to handling of apparently normal but Listeria-infected
chickens. The onset is sudden and death may follow within 24-48 h. The infection
may also cause abortion and stillbirth in pregnant woman and also gets transmitted
to the neonates (Rocourt and Bille, 1997; Swaminathan,
2001). Transmission of food-borne avian diseases primarily occurs via food-chain
by fecal-oral route. Contamination of food materials can also occur by unhygienic
food handling practices, contaminated water and by flies and insects (Dhama
et al., 2011a).
PREVENTION AND CONTROL
In recent years, Listeria has been established as an important food-borne
pathogen and has become a major concern to the food industry and health authorities.
The disease can be prevented by identification and elimination of the possible
sources of infection; and by practicing a high standard of hygiene and sound
management practices in the poultry farm and also in the poultry processing
zones (Cutter and Henning, 2003; Swaminathan,
2001; Wesley, 1999; Rossi et
al., 2008). Apart from that strict hygienic and sanitation procedures
along with culling or isolation of affected birds should be adopted to control
the disease. The use of antibiotics in feed been reported for prophylaxis of
listeriosis in poultry. Once entering the meat processing facility, Listeria
becomes resident and may be able to survive non-stringent sanitation procedures
(LaBudde, 1999; Tompkin et
al., 1992; Slutsker and Schuchat, 1999). The
unusual growth and survival properties of L. monocytogenes and its ability
to adhere to various surfaces, contributes to the complexity and difficulty
of eliminating this organism. Hence, proper sanitation and disinfection of processing
plants along with discarding the infected birds at entry level are essential
(Kosek-Paszkowska et al., 2005; Malik
and Vaidya, 2005). The presence of the organism in cooked food usually indicates
inadequate cooking or cross contamination after cooking (Barbuddhe
et al., 2008). Methods like controlling the pH, water activity, use
of preservatives, restricted shelf lives etc. may help in overcoming the problem
of contamination. The incidence of Listeria has been found higher in
frozen meat than in fresh meat since the frozen meat and meat products are more
liable to be contaminated during their preparation and storage (Cutter
and Henning, 2003; Tompkin et al., 1992).
The disease can be prevented in human beings by avoiding consumption of Listeria
contaminated food-stuffs. In addition the increase in the spread of antimicrobial
resistance among bacterial pathogens is also increasing public health concern.
At the level of consumers, the identification of high-risk foods and the education
of high-risk individuals are to be given due consideration (Rebagliati
et al., 2009). The immunocompromised persons, pregnant women and
old people are at high risk of infection (Rappaport et
al., 1960; WHO Working Group, 1988). Listeria
is often resistant to most commonly used antibiotics but it will respond to
high levels of tetracyclines, which are efficacious in both acute and subacute
form of the disease. Chortetracycline is probably the ant-microbial drug of
choice. Treatment of the chronic form is usually unsuccessful. So far no vaccination
is available. With the generalized use of antibiotics in poultry feed for growth
promotion, the cases of listeriosis in poultry have decreased to few only (Low
and Donachie, 1997; Gray and Killinger, 1966; Barnes,
2003). Individuals should be advised of the need to follow the general guidelines
as well as strictly following additional precautions detailed below.
Bacteriophage therapy is also being used to control Listeria in poultry
meat products so as to check and eliminate human infection (Leverentz
et al., 2003; Carlton et al., 2005;
Kim et al., 2008; Bigot
et al., 2011). Phage treatment during processing and packaging is
has been studied to check L. monocytogenes in raw and ready to eat meat
and poultry products (Soni et al., 2010). Probiotics
have also been suggested to play role in inhibiting Listeria monocytogenes
(Dhama et al., 2011b). These novel anti-listerial
agents need much to be explored for their practical applicability to control
listeriosis and its food borne zoonoses in humans.
WAYS TO MINIMIZE INFECTION IN HUMANS
Reduce the risk of cross contamination by keeping uncooked meat away from other
food substances. Wash the hands, knives and cutting boards after handling uncooked
meat. Moist heat (121°C for a minimum of 15 min) or dry heat (160-170°C
for 1 h) can kill the organism present in utensils. Thorough and proper cooking
of raw meat has to be practiced (Bremer et al.,
2002; Rebagliati et al., 2009). Food should
be properly stored and follow good kitchen hygiene practices. Packed and frozen
meat products have to be further heated in accordance with manufacturers
instructions. Disinfectants like 1% sodium hypochlorite, 70% ethanol or glutaraldehyde
should be used in processing units to inactivate the organism. Disease can be
satisfactorily prevented by wearing protective clothing while handling infected
birds or their tissues. Limiting listeriosis requires implementation of effective
food safety control measures and ensuring that these control strategies are
consistently met (Oyarzabal, 2006; Adzitey
and Huda, 2010).
The most appropriate strategies for its control in foods are Good Manufacturing
Practices (GMP), good hygiene and sanitation in operating procedures and Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) programs. These procedures will help
in minimizing the environmental contamination by this organism and prevent cross-contamination
in processing and packaging units as well as retail counters. There should be
appropriate time and temperature controls throughout the entire distribution
and storage period of packed meat/meat products. Post-packaging treatments are
to be implemented to destroy L. monocytogenes in food products (USFDA,
2001). L. monocytogenes can also colonize various inert surfaces
and can form biofilms on food-processing surfaces (Roberts
and Wiedman, 2003). Science-based education and risk communication strategies
aimed at susceptible populations and focused on high-risk foods should be delivered
through health care providers or other credible sources of information. High-risk
individuals should be provided with guidance on safe and healthy eating practices,
with specific information on high-risk foods that they should avoid. Since,
this organism will have the ability to grow at low temperature, so thorough
cooking, prevention of cross-contamination and short-term refrigerated storage
of cooked perishable foods are some of the steps to avoid the disease (Oyarzabal,
2006; Gillespie et al., 2006; Dhama
et al., 2009).
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES L. monocytogenes is ubiquitous, opportunistic and a very important food-borne pathogen that continues to pose worries to the food industry and health authorities. Their infection is severe in high risk individuals. The main source of infection is through the consumption of contaminated food. Ready-to-eat foods, meat and meat products and milk and milk product are the major source of outbreaks and most research has concentrated in this area. Their ability to survive in refrigeration and wide environmental conditions increases the plight of achieving zero or minimal tolerant of L. monocytogens in foods. To control this zoonotic pathogen, accurate techniques for the diagnosis like isolation and then identification of Listeria is very crucial. To reduce its incidence, clean and hygienic rearing of birds at farms, their processing, packaging at plants and then marketing at retail outlets are very important. Although, the direct transmission of Listeria from birds to man is rare but the there is need to further elucidate the factors involved in its transmission from poultry to human beings. This underlines the fact that L. monocytogenes is not only important for public health but also has a socio-economic importance upon the production of food and on food businesses worldwide, including those involved in international trade.
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