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Research Article
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Impacts of Fertilization Systems on Nitrogen Loss and Yield of Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus L.) |
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H. Sabahi,
A. Ghalavand
and
S.A.M. Modarres Sanavy
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ABSTRACT
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Farmyard manure is considered as a source of plant nutrient supply, but high N loss and low N use efficiency are often serious challenges facing this source of nutrient. It is supposed that a combination of manure with inorganic fertilizers can reduce this problem. A two year experiment was conducted in 2004-2005 at Mazandran province of Iran in order to study the effects of manure, inorganic nitrogen and combination of manure-inorganic nitrogen on N loss and yield of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) under rainfed conditions. Treatments included 0, 50, 100 and 150 kg N ha-1 urea (F0, F50, F100, F150), 100 kg N ha-1 urea + 50 kg N ha-1 manure (F100M50), 50 kg N ha-1 urea + 100 kg N ha-1 manure (F50M100), 150 kg N ha-1 manure (M150). The highest grain yield (3 ton ha-1) was obtained with the 150 kg N ha-1 as urea treatment in both years. Grain yield in M150 treatment was significantly lower (p<0.05) than F150. However F100M50 and F50M100 resulted in similar yields compared with F150 treatment. Results also showed that F100M50 and F50M100 treatments decreased N loss (4 and 3 kg N ha-1 year-1, respectively) compared to application of manure alone (33.5 kg N ha-1 year-1) and F150 (36 kg N ha-1 year-1). Overall, it could be conducted that F100M50 is the best treatment because it produced similar grain yield compared to F150 while resulted in lower N loss as well.
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INTRODUCTION
The negative environmental impacts of high N loss
from agricultural systems and the high amount of fossil fuels involved
in the industrial fixation of N for fertilization, necessitate better
understanding of the connection between management practices and the N
loss. This impetus has led to comparison research examining the N cycle
of varying fertilization systems with an aim to isolate the managements
which can decrease leakage of N from the system and to evaluate inputs
on their ability to be retained in the crop or soil (Kramer et al.,
2002). The effects of an integrated nutrition system; i.e., manure + inorganic
fertilization on nitrogen loss have been rarely studied while the separate
effects of them have been investigated in many experiments. Bergstrom
and Kirchmann (1999) and Basso and Ritchie (2005) reported more N loss
in the manure treated plots compared with plots treated by inorganic N.
Thomsen (2005) showed that application of manure in fall and spring caused
21 and 13% NO3 leaching, respectively. Brrouwer and Powell
(1998) also reported high N loss from cattle manure (90 kg ha-1 year-1).
In contrast, Eghball (2002) and Sims (1987) reported more NO3
leaching at inorganic fertilization systems compared to beef cattle manure
and poultry manure treatment. Poudel et al. (2001) found that compared
to the conventional system, cumulative N loss for the organic and low-input
systems were lower by 80 and 92%, respectively.
In addition to the role of organic fertilizers on decreasing N loss,
they are of great interest to most farmers since they are simply available
as a source of multiple nutrients and can improve soil characteristics
to much extent. Information on the effects of organic and integrated fertilization
systems on grain yield of winter oilseed rape is sparse (Rathke et
al., 2006). Based on data given by Rathke et al. (2005), slurry
application reduced the yield of winter oilseed rape between 7.8 and 16.6%
compared to inorganic fertilizers. Application of farmyard manure + poultry
manure + sugarcane filter cake as a substitute for chemical fertilizers
resulted in lower grain than full chemical NPK in cotton (Khaliq et
al., 2006). In contrast, Eghball and Power (1999a) showed that cattle
manure application resulted in similar corn grain yield as that for chemical
fertilizer treatment in all years of experiment except for no-till in
1996. It is supposed that a combination of manure and chemical fertilizer
as source of crop N demand may be able to produce higher yield compared
with application of manure or chemical fertilizer alone which is in part
due to temporally distinct patterns of N release from the two sources
(Prasad et al., 2002; Ghosh et al., 2004).
Very little information exist on the application of manure
and manure + inorganic fertilization as a source of N to meet oilseed
rape demand especially under sub-humid environments. The objective of
this experiment was to assess the effects of inorganic fertilization,
beef cattle feedlot manure and manure-inorganic fertilizer combination
on N loss and oilseed rape yield.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental site: A two year experiment was conducted in 2004 and
2005 at Research Station of Shahid Beheshti University at Savad khooh
(36.4° N and 53.1° E, Elevation 1200 m) in Mazandran province.
Mean annual precipitation was 738 and 712 mm in 2005 and 2006, respectively,
of which 540 and 578 mm occurred during growing season (October up to
June) of 2004-2005 and 2005-2006, respectively. 50, 37 and 13% of this
precipitation happened during fall, winter and spring, respectively of
2004-2005 growth season. These values were 40, 30 and 30% for 2005-2006
growth season. The average of temperature during fall (2004), winter,
spring and summer of 2005 was, 14, 8.4, 17.9 and 22.3°C. These values
for 2005-2006 were, 16.2, 8.1, 19.8 and 25.2°C.
Before the experiment, the field was under rice cultivation for many
years, followed by 5-year fallow. The soil texture was clay loam. Other
soil characteristics are shown in Table 1.
Experimental design: The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete
block design with four replications. Treatments included 0 (F0),
50 (F50), 100 (F100), 150 (optimum- F150)
kg N ha-1, 100 kg N ha-1 urea + 50 kg N ha-1
manure (F100M50), 50 kg N ha-1 urea +
100 kg N ha-1 manure (F50M100) and 150
kg N ha-1 manure (M150). Treatments were located
on the same plots site during both years.
Plots were 2.1 m wide (7 rows with a 0.30 m row spacing)
by 5 m long. Beef cattle feedlot manure (collected during October 2004
and 2005) was applied to oilseed rape by disking and incorporated into
the 15 cm topsoil 2 weeks before planting. Manure application was based
on the assumption that 35 and 20% of total N in manure would become available
during the first and second years after application, respectively (Eghball
and Power, 1999a).
Table 1: |
Characteristics
of soil (0-15 cm) and cattle manure in 2004 and 2005 |
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a: Available phosphorus, b:
Total phosphorus |
According to this method, total manure application were
43, 28.6 and 14.6 ton ha-1 in M150, F50M100
and F100M50 treatments, respectively for two years.
Half of urea was applied at planting and the remaining was manually side-dressed
at the beginning of stem elongation. Oilseed rape cv. Hyola was overseeded
on 6 and 16 November 2004 and 2005, respectively and thinned to 66 plants
m-2 at the three-leaf stage. Plots were kept weed-free during
the growing season by hand weeding.
Soil sampling, soil and plant analysis: Initial soil sampling was conducted at the time
of plot establishment in October 2004. Subsequent soil sampling was conducted
at the end of the experiment in June 2006. Five soil cores (2.5 cm diameter
at 30 cm depth) were taken from each plot in each sampling. The soil was
mixed thoroughly in a bucket, sieved through a 2 mm-mesh screen and air-dried
prior to analysis. Total N was determined by the Kjeldahl digestion, distillation
(Bremner, 1996).
Oilseed rape was harvested in May 2005 and 2006 from
the 4 m long of the middle five rows. Grain yield was adjusted to 15%
water content. Samples were then taken from grain and stem samples to
determine N content.
Calculation of N loss: N loss (NO3 leaching + N2O
and NH3 emission) was determined based on the calculation of
N balance according to the method of Poudel et al. (2001). Average
annual N loss calculated through N balance minus soil N storage. N balance
was determined by the following formula:
N balance = Input N (kg ha-1) —
Output N (kg ha-1) |
Soil N storage calculated by the following formula: |
Soil N storage = [Total N in the end of experiment
(g kg-1) — Total N at the initiation of experiment
(g kg-1)] x bulk density (g cm-3) x soil depth
(cm) x 100] |
There were no significant differences between the experimental
plots with regard to initial soil total N at 0-30 cm depth. So, the average
2.09 g N kg-1 soil was accounted as the initial soil N content
for all treatments.
Bulk density did not change under different fertilization
systems (data have not been shown), so its initiation value (1.3 g cm-3)
used for 0-30 cm soil depth, across all treatments.
Statistical analysis: Data were analyzed statistically using PROC GLM
procedure in SAS (1996). All parameters were analyzed by one-way method
within each year as randomized complete block design. When F-tests showed
statistical significance, the Duncan`s multiple range test (p<0.05)
was performed on means for particular comparison.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
There was a significant difference between treatments for grain
yield (Table 2). Optimum amount of chemical fertilization
was 150 kg ha-1 (F150) in both years. Grain yield
for organic treatment (M150) was significantly (p<0.05)
lower than F150 treatment in both years (Table
2). Stevenson et al. (1998) also found that application of
cattle manure under certain environmental conditions may not entirely
meet the N demands of winter oilseed rape and hence, supplemental chemical
N fertilizer may be needed. Pang and letey (2000) noted that due to inadequate
N supply from manure, high initial applications may be used to build up
the organic pool followed by lower application rates. Beauchamp (1986)
also reported that less than 10% of the total N in the solid farmyard
manure became available during the year of application, indicating the
very slow rate of N release from this source into the soil. Change and
Janzen (1996) found that after 20 year of cattle manure application, only
56% of the N content of manure was mineralized, suggesting that insufficient
amounts of N were supplied to meet the needs of most annual crops. Mooleki
et al. (2004) stated that rate in excess of 400 kg N ha-1
year-1 could be appropriate for the first 3 or 4 year on previously
unmanured land to achieve high yield in oilseed rape. This type of plant
response to cattle manure could be attributed to the slow release of the
organic N from manure, high C:N ratio (exceeding 15:1) and the low inorganic
N content (Mooleki et al., 2004).
In contrast to above results, Eghball and Power (1999
a,b) found that cattle manure application in maize, under conventional
land preparation resulted in similar grain yield as that for chemical
fertilization treatment. This difference can be related to higher N availability
of manure in Eghball and Power experiment (1999 a,b) compared with ours.
In this experiment, apparent NUE [(total treatment N uptake in 2 year
-total check N uptake in 2 year)/N applied
Table 2: |
Seed yield and top
N uptake of oilseed rape for various fertilization treatments in
2004 and 2005 |
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a: F0,
F50, F100 and F150 and are 0, 50,
100 and 150 kg N ha-1 year-1 urea, respectively.
F100M50 is 100 kg N ha-1 urea +
50 kg N ha-1 manure, F50M100 is
50 kg N ha-1 urea + 100 kg N ha-1 manure,
M150 is 150 kg N ha-1 manure. The means having
the same letter(s) within each year are not significantly different
at p<0.05 by Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) |
in 2 year] x 100, was 22% for manure and 50% for the fertilizer treatment,
These values for our experiment was 17 and 58%, respectively (Table
2). These values showed in present study, N availability has been
lower than experiment of Eghball and Power (1999 a,b). Lower total N uptake
by oilseed rape in the organic treatment compared to the inorganic treatment
also verified this assumption (Table 2). C:N of manure
in the Eghball and Power (1999 a, b) experiment was approximately similar
to that in the present study. Hence, it seem that the difference in climate
condition and soil properties were the main reasons for difference in
N mineralization (N availability) in manure. Pattern of N uptake by plant
can also affect its response to manure application. Winter oilseed rape
accumulates 25-30% of total N (40-80 kg N ha-1) from the soil
during autumn (Rathke et al., 2006) when N mineralization in manure
is expected to be low. In spring when N mineralization from manure increase
due to favorable climate condition, winter oilseed rape starts flowering
and demand to N decrease (Rathke et al., 2006).
Combined treatment F100M50 in the first year and
F100M50 and F50M100 treatments
in the second year of the experiment, produced similar yield to F150
treatment (Table 2). Patra et al. (2000) showed
that herb and essential oil yields of mint (Mentha arvensis cv.
Hy 77) were significantly higher in combined application of farmyard manure
and inorganic fertilizer compared to that of inorganic fertilizer alone.
But, Khaliq et al. (2006) observed that combination of 10 ton ha-1
organic fertilizer (farmyard manure + poultry manure + sugarcane filter
cake) + EM (effective microorganism) and 1/2 mineral NPK yielded very
similar to that obtained from full recommended mineral NPK in cotton.
Ghosh et al. (2004) also found that application of 75% NPK + 5
ton ha-1 farmyard manure compared to 100% NPK resulted in equal
and more grain yield in sorghum and soybean, respectively. It can be concluded
that due to slow release
Table 3: |
Cumulative N balance,
soil N storage (at 0-30 cm soil depth) and N loss for the manure,
inorganic fertilizer and combination of manure- inorganic fertilizer
treatments across 2004-2005 |
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a: F0,
F50, F100 and F150 and are 0, 50,
100 and 150 kg N ha-1 year-1 urea, respectively.
F100M50 is 100 kg N ha-1 urea +
50 kg N ha-1 manure, F50M100 is
50 kg N ha-1 urea + 100 kg N ha-1 manure,
M150 is 150 kg N ha-1 manure, The means having
the same letter(s), are not significantly different at p<0.05
by DMRT |
of nitrogen in manure (Mooleki et al., 2004),
heavy users of N as cotton, sorghum and oilseed rape at integrated nitrogen
management can not produce more yield than inorganic fertilization system
in short term, but plant such as soybean and mint with low N demand can.
In spite of less N accumulation in combined treatments (Table
2), similar yield of F100M50 and F50M100
compared with F150 might be due to better synchronization
of released N and crop uptake (Qian and Schoenau, 2002) and positive effects
of manure on physicochemical and biological properties of soil (Nyamangara
et al., 2001; Damodar Reddy et al., 1999; Kanchikerimath
and Singh, 2001).
Amount of N storage in soil and N loss: Soil sampling showed
that the organic treatment caused the highest amount of N storage (2.18
g N kg-1) in soil in both years (Table 3).
F50M100 treatment was ranked second in this respect.
Results indicated that the organic treatment added 352 kg N ha-1
to soil during both years of experiment, which was 2.24 and 1.28 time
more than those of F100M50 and F50M100,
respectively (Table 3). Wander et al. (1994) also
reported significant differences in total N of soils in animal-based (3.5
g kg-1), cover crop- based (3.42 g kg-1) and conventional
(3.25 g kg-1) systems after 10 years of differential management
in east-central Pennsylvania.
The average annual N loss which was calculated as the difference between
N balance and soil N storage, showed that N loss in F100M50
and F50M100 treatments were only 4 and 3 kg N ha-1
year-1, respectively (Table 3). These values
were 33.5 and 36 kg N ha-1 year-1 for complete manure
and inorganic fertilizer applications, respectively.
As observed, combined treatments reduced N loss compared to the organic
and inorganic treatments (Table 3). However, very little
information exist in literature on the effects of integrated nutrition
systems (manure + inorganic) on nitrogen loss. Nyamangara et al. (2003)
reported that combined treatment, 12.5 ton manure ha-1 plus
60 kg N ha-1 acted as the best in terms of maintaining high
dry matter yield in maize and minimizing N leaching. Such a response could
be attributed to lower amount of manure application which has resulted
in reduction in NO3 leaching from May to November 2005 when
the field was left fallow (Thomsen, 2005). On the other hand, considerable
amount of soil N would immediately be immobilized after manure application
(Qian and Schoenau, 2002). Under this condition, N availability is less
than inorganic fertilizer system especially in autumn and winter, this
can also decrease NO3 leaching.
As observed in Table 3, no significant difference was
observed between M150 and F150 with respect to N
loss. Sims (1987) reported that NO3-N leaching to the 0.6 m
depth was greater under mineral N application than poultry manure application.
Eghball (2002) also reported that residual soil NO3 to a depth
1.2 m was greater for inorganic fertilizer than manure and compost treatments
in dry year. In contrast, in his study on spring barley, Thomsen (2005)
reported that manure application in fall and spring caused 21 and 13%
NO3 leaching, respectively. The observed disagreements could
be related to difference rainfall pattern during and off the growing season
and C:N ratio of manure (Thomsen, 2005).
CONCLUSION
Grain yield in the organic fertilizer system (M150)
was significantly less than inorganic fertilizer system (F150)
in both years. Integrated treatments (F50M100 and
F100M50) produced similar yields to that obtained
from F150 while they resulted in less nitrogen loss. Therefore,
it is recommended to reduce the amount of inorganic fertilizer and supplement
it with manure to decrease environmental hazards including nitrate leaching.
Regarding the high cost of manure, treatment F100M50 suggested.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge the Tarbiat Modares University, Division
of Agriculture for supplying facilities to conduct the soil and plant
analyses. The authors also acknowledge the Shahid Beheshti University,
Division of Environmental Science for providing field facilities.
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