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Review Article
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Phytonutrients and Nutraceuticals in Vegetables and Their Multi-dimensional Medicinal and Health Benefits for Humans and Their Companion Animals: A Review |
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Anu Rahal,
Mahima ,
Amit Kumar Verma,
Amit Kumar ,
Ruchi Tiwari ,
Sanjay Kapoor ,
Sandip Chakraborty
and
Kuldeep Dhama
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ABSTRACT
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At present, almost every third person in the society is under
stress and having chronic disorders like diabetes, arthritis, allergy, cardiovascular
disease, fatigue and even cancer. Recently, there is decline in the physical
and mental capabilities along with the social values. So this certainly should
raise the alarms as to why such deterioration is taking place in the society
or what are the changes in the lifestyle that might have a role direct/indirect
in evolution of such changes? Vegetable is an immense store of active chemical
compounds and considered as the cheapest and most easily available sources of
carbohydrate, fiber, proteins, vitamins, minerals and amino acids. The intake
of green and leafy vegetables lowers the risk of chronic diseases, cardiovascular
diseases, anemia, cancer, oxidative stress, diabetes, weight gain etc. In recent
time, vegetables have also been identified as safe and economic expression system
for producing the recombinant proteins including the vaccines against many infectious
diseases like hepatitis B, malaria, rotavirus, HIV, Helicobacter pylori,
pestedes petits ruminants etc. However, besides the beneficial effect, contaminated
and raw vegetables harbors pesticide residues and many pathogenic microbes viz.,
norovirus, Salmonella, E. coli, Shigella, Listeria monocytogens
and also prove to be an excellent source of disease outbreaks. The present review
highlights the phytonutrients and neutraceuticals in fruits and vegetables;
their medicinal and health benefits for humans and their domestic as well as
companion animals along with their fruitful practical applications and perspectives
like bioreactor for producing vaccine along with the methods that can increase
their nutritional benefits.
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How
to cite this article:
Anu Rahal, Mahima , Amit Kumar Verma, Amit Kumar , Ruchi Tiwari , Sanjay Kapoor , Sandip Chakraborty and Kuldeep Dhama , 2014. Phytonutrients and Nutraceuticals in Vegetables and Their Multi-dimensional Medicinal and Health Benefits for Humans and Their Companion Animals: A Review. Journal of Biological Sciences, 14: 1-19. DOI: 10.3923/jbs.2014.1.19 URL: https://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=jbs.2014.1.19
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Received: October 25, 2013;
Accepted: November 11, 2013;
Published: January 11, 2014
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INTRODUCTION
In the stressful society of today, almost every third individual is suffering
for the chronic health problems like diabetes, arthritis, allergy, cardiovascular
disease, fatigue, chronic decrease in productivity and/or vigour and even cancer.
The count of human and animal diseases is rising day by day. This certainly
raises a question in the human mind that why such a huge emergence of diseases
now? Medicos very easily answer the question that it is because of better diagnostics
but it is an incomplete and debatable answer. Today, the physical and mental
capabilities are declining. Man is a social animal but even the social values
are getting lost in the current scenario (Mahima et
al., 2012a). So this certainly should raise the alarms as to why such
deterioration is taking place in the society or what are the changes in the
lifestyle that might have a role direct/indirect in evolution of such changes?
According to World Health Organization, the vegetables intake is less than 20-50%,
which is below the recommended amount. This low intake of vegetables especially
in developed nations of the world is because of the preference of the consumers
for food which is convenient and not the vegetables security.
Table 1: |
List of plant and their parts used |
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It has been found that more of processed than fresh vegetables are consumed
in the United States (Rickman et al., 2007). Compared
to components that are isolated whole foods are found to be beneficial in a
better way to human health in an ascending manner. Such foods have been found
in supplements. There is outperforming of dietary supplements that are carotenoid
in nature and are resistant to oxidation due to Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL);
having lowered damage of deoxy ribonucleic acid (DNA) and in human volunteers
induces greater activity of repairing (Southon, 2000).
Addition of vitamins viz., A and C; E supplements to the diet of patients suffering
from cancer affects negatively their radiotherapy as well as chemotherapy results
(Seifried et al., 2003). Resistance development
in common pathogens of man and animals viz., Salmonella, E. coli,
Campylobacter, Arcobacter, Staphyloccous, Streptococcus,
Klebsiella, Pseudomonas and opportunistic pathogens like mycoplasmas
towards the chemical compounds and drugs including antibiotics (Singh
et al., 2008, 2009; Kumar
et al., 2012a, 2013a, b;
Dhama et al., 2011, 2013a;
Malik et al., 2013; Anita
et al., 2013; Patyal et al., 2011;
Verma et al., 2012; Rajagunalan
et al., 2012; Taddele et al., 2012;
Tiwari et al., 2013a), antifungals, antivirals,
people are now looking towards age old natural therapies viz., ayurvedic, herbal
and traditional medicines with a great hope (Mahima et
al., 2012b; Tiwari et al., 2013b; Dhama
et al., 2013b).
Fruits and vegetables have dietetic value, nutritive value and some may also
have the medicinal value (Mahima et al., 2012b,
2013a, b). The dietetic value
is a prophylactic (preventive) or curative quality of certain foodstuffs and
is natural. The main objective of the diet is the protection of the internal
organs, first of those that participate directly or indirectly to digestion,
of the blood-vascular system, etc. Fruits and vegetables have a natural dietetic
importance because of their components like vitamin and minerals, dietary fibers,
amino acids, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) antioxidants and even phytoncides
(natural antibiotics) etc., (Chiu et al., 2011;
Esfahani et al., 2011; Heim
et al., 2012). The plant world particularly the group fruits
and vegetables is an enormous store of active chemical compounds and considered
as the cheapest and most easily available sources of carbohydrate, fiber, proteins,
vitamins, minerals and amino acids (Ahmad et al.,
2008; Gibson et al., 2012). The present
review highlights the important phytonutrients and nutraceuticals in fruits
and vegetables; their medicinal and health benefits for humans and their domestic
as well as companion animals along with their fruitful practical applications
and perspectives like bioreactor for producing vaccine along with the methods
that can increase their nutritional benefits.
PLANT WORLD-A RICH SOURCE OF VEGETABLES
The term vegetable includes any edible part of a plant. Vegetables
are those herbaceous plants whose part or parts are taken in the diet as supporting
food and/or main dishes. They may be aromatic, bitter or tasteless. It is part
of cultural heritage and they play important roles in the customs, traditions
and food culture of household of India (Rahal and Kumar,
2009). Vegetables are the cheapest and available sources of carbohydrates,
proteins, vitamins and minerals ad libidum (Prasad
et al., 2008; Lamprecht, 2012). Since centuries
different parts of plants are edible (Table 1).
GREEN HERITAGE OF VEGETABLES
India is enriched with a variety of traditional vegetables and various types
of vegetables are consumed by the various ethnic groups for different reasons
and purposes. If we look around, we find a lot of indigenous therapies, ethno
medicines and traditions being practiced in different parts of the world. These
practices vary among geographical regions as well as over generations. Human
ancestry goes back to apes of Africa and then Asia. They ate an enormous range
of plants-leaves, buds, flower buds, gums, tubers and even pollens. Little was
known about their health benefits or toxicity. Today, the genetic manipulations
have resulted in even more palatable and nutritious plants but the irony is
we eat very few plants as our daily diet.
Leafy vegetables are said to be an invaluable substitute for meat and therefore
form integral part of daily diets of rural communities. The traditional leafy
vegetables have a proven nutritive value in terms of having high carbohydrate,
protein, vitamins and minerals in comparison to that of exotic vegetables. Many
of vegetables like carrot, radish, tomato, onion, cabbage and cucumber are routinely
used as salad. There is growing trend of taking micro greens (seedlings of edible
vegetables and herbs) for the sake of flavors, colors and textures and served
as garnish or salad (Xiao et al., 2012). Studies
showed that salad bar can be significant in promotion of the consumption of
vegetables (Harris et al., 2012). Consumption
of green salad is helpful in reducing the risk of chronic and cardiovascular
disease (Azadbakht et al., 2012). Consumption
of low energy soup or vegetables before meal can reduce the intake of more energy
dense food in children (Spill et al., 2011;
Roe et al., 2012); enhance satiety and control
hunger and therefore helpful in managing weight (Ello-Martin
et al., 2005). Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L.) and salad crop
have been reported to be rich in vitamins and minerals (Logendra
et al., 2002). The vitamin and mineral contents of peas is helpful
in preventing diseases due to Selenium or folate deficiency (Dahl
et al., 2012).
EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON PLANT NUTRIENT CONTENTS
During the development stages, if a plant experiences certain stresses it starts
to hold various phytochemicals as well as antioxidants at upper levels, wherein
several secondary compounds are effective medicinally (Lila,
2006). On exposure to pests as well as other insults of the environment,
the quality of organic vegetables may be lowered. It has been revealed that
the quercetin content increases greatly due to organic management along with
kaempferol level when the environmental stress is controlled (Bruulsema,
2002; Mitchell and Chassy, 2007).
PHYTONUTRIENTS AND NUTRACEUTICALS FROM FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Nutrients are the food substances that ensure a normal deployment of the biological
processes from the body of human and participate into the metabolic processes.
The content of various nutrients is not as important as the quality, availability
and ratio of the compounds. Many phytochemicals have been identified helping
the body in maintenance of health and fighting various diseases. The term nutraceutical
describes particular chemical compounds found in foods that may prevent disease
development and phytochemical can underestimate the plant source of most of
these protective compounds, whereas phytonutrient describes quasi-nutrient status
of such compounds. The phytonutrients present in fruits and vegetables have
been classified in the older times into vitamins, for example flavonoids were
recognized as vitamin P, cabbage factors (glucosinolates and indoles) as vitamin
U, ubiquinone as vitamin Q and Tocopherol as vitamin E. The description as Vitamin
was removed for the other phytonutrients except tocopherol, due to be deficient
in establishing specific deficiency symptoms.
The phytonutrients can be classified into various groups on the basis of alike
protective functions as well as individual physical and chemical characteristics
of the molecules. It is important to note that all classes of phytonutrients
are required to be consumed for a sound and healthy body. Focusing neutraceuticals,
there is greater potential for opportunities that are new, novel as well as
exciting. Crops need to be selected with value addition for the growers and
a demand for their transition to organic crop production (Greenleaf,
1999). The following is a list of important phytonutrients and their useful
medicinal values.
Anthocyanidins: Anthocyanidins are a type of flavonoids, also known
as flavonals, which provide cross-links that hook up and strengthen the intertwined
collagen protein strands found in tissues, tendons, ligaments and bone matrix.
These also act as free radical scavenger in tissue fluids (Jeong
et al., 2013). In human beings, risk of myocardial infarction is
reduced by taking high amount of anthocyanins (Cassidy
et al., 2013).
Carotenoids: The carotenoid family consists of carotenes and xantophylls.
There are more than 600 naturally occurring carotenoids. The subclass terpenes
comprises of bright red, orange and yellow pigments present in various vegetables
viz., tomatoes, spinach, oranges, pink grapefruit and red palm oil. Carotenes
are chemically classified as 40-carbon tetraterpenes, missing the hydroxyl or
keto groups (beta carotene), while xanthophylls include carotenoid alcohols
and keto-carotenoids cryotpxanthin, canthaxantin, zeaxanthin and astazanthin.
Vitamin A activity is only present in alpha, beta and epsilon carotene, out
of these the beta carotene is the most active (Yoon et
al., 2012). The antioxidant activity of alpha carotene and epsilon carotene
is 50-54 and 42-50%, respectively of the antioxidant activity of beta carotene.
The alpha, beta, gamma, epsilon, lycopene and lutein carotenes have been found
to be provide protection against tumors of the lung, colorectal, breast, uterine
and prostate (Yoon et al., 2012). The overall
protective effects of carotenes will be additive if taken together, since the
these are tissue-specific. The carotenes also augment immune response and can
protect skin cells against UV radiation (Mahima et al.,
2013a). These also help liver in safely eliminating pollutants and toxins
from the body. Xanthophylls help in the protection of vitamin A, E and various
other carotenoids from oxidation. Xanthophylls especially canthaxantin migrates
to the skin and protects it from sunlight. The cryptoxanthin has been shown
to protect vaginal, uterine and cervical tissues.
Catechins, gallic acids: The chemical structure of catechins is slightly
different from other flavonoids but has the same chemoprotective activities.
Green tea (Camellia sinensis) is rich in catechins (Scoparo
et al., 2012).
Flavonoids: Flavonoids constitute a subclass of phenols that improve
the effects of ascorbate-vitamin C. The hesperidin found in citrus fruits, quercetin
in grapefruit and rutin in buckwheat are some of the important flavonoids. These
are beneficial in allergic conditions, inflammation, liver disorders, platelet
aggregation, pathogens (bacteria and viruses), cancer and ulcers and acts as
antioxidant. These inhibit a number of specific enzymes thereby help in preventing
various diseases and maintenance of a healthy body. The flavonoids block the
Angiotensin-converting Enzyme (ACE) that is responsible for raising blood pressure.
The platelet stickiness and aggregation is prevented by blocking the cyclooxygenase
enzyme that breaks down prostaglandins. Flavonoids are also helpful in protection
of the vascular system (Van Dam et al., 2013).
The risk of estrogen-induced cancers in females can be reduced by flavonoids
due to blocking of certain enzymes producing estrogen. Aldose-reductase can
convert the galactose sugar into the potentially harmful form of galacticol.
Flavonoids may retard development of cataracts in individuals with inborn errors
in sugar metabolism such as diabetes by blocking aldose-reductase (Van
Dam et al., 2013).
Glucosinolates: These are frequently present in the vegetables of Cruciferi
family and set in motion the detoxification enzymes in liver, white blood cells
and cytokines thereby helping in boosting immunity. The isothiocyanates, dithiolthiones
and sulforaphane are the bio-transformation products of glucosinolates that
are involved in blocking enzymes which are responsible for tumourous growth
in liver, lung, breast and gastrointestinal tracts (esophagus, stomach and colon)
(Baskar et al., 2012).
Indoles: Indoles include phytonutrients that interact with vitamin C
and their complexes bind with chemical carcinogens. These also help in activating
the detoxification enzymes. The acid in stomach helps in the formation of bio-transformation
products of indoles like the ascorbigen.
Isoflavones: This is a subclass of phenol found in beans and other legumes
and its function is similar to flavonoids in effectively block enzymes promoting
tumor growth, the important ones include genistein and daidzein which are found
in soy products and the herb, Pueraria lobata (Kudzu) (Kaufman
et al., 1997). The incidence of breast, uterine and prostate cancers
is rare in people who consume traditional diets rich in soy foods.
Isoprenoids: The isoprenoids neutralize free radicals by grabbing any
free radicals attempting to attach lipid (fat) membranes passing them off to
other antioxidants.
Limonoids: This is a subclass of terpenes that is found in citrus fruit,
a peel that is specifically directed to protect lung tissue and prevent breast
cancer that responses to oestrogen (Kim et al.,
2012; Sun et al., 2013). The chemotherapeutic
activity of limonoids may be due to induction of both Phase I and Phase II detoxification
enzymes in the liver.
Lipoic acid and ubiquinone: Lipoic acid and ubiquinone (coenzyme Q)
are antioxidants which can efficiently quench the hydroxyl radicals and are
active on both lipids and tissue fluids and scavenges peroxyl, ascorbyl and
chromanoxyl radicals. It can protect both vitamin E and vitamin C, as can function
in both lipid and water phases. They can also protect catalase and glutathione,
thus helpful in liver detoxification activities.
Phytosterols: Phytosterols are present in green and yellow vegetables
and their seeds. These can effectively compete with dietary cholesterol absorption
through intestines and thus make easy the excretion of cholesterol from the
body and therefore are helpful in alleviating the risk of cardiovascular diseases
(Jones et al., 1997; Awaisheh
et al., 2013). These have also been reported to be helpful in blocking
the development of cancer in various organs especially colon, breast and prostate
glands.
Phenols: Phenols are a large group of phytonutrients protecting the
humans from various kinds of oxidative damages. Phenol gives the blue, blue-red
and violet colorations to berries, grapes and purple eggplant. The red colour
in bilberriesis is due to the presence of high phenolic anthocyanidins. The
phenols block specific enzymes that cause inflammation and protect platelets
from clumping most likely by modification of the prostaglandin pathways.
Terpenes: These form the largest classes of phytonutrients and are commonly
present in green foods, soy products and grains. Carotenoid i.e., beta carotene
is one of the most studied terpenes. The antioxidants property of the terpenes
protects lipids, blood and other body fluids from attack by free radical oxygen.
Thiols: Thiols comprises of sulfur-containing phytonutrients present
in garlic and cruciferous vegetables (cabbage, turnips and members of the mustard
family). Allylic Sulfides subclass is abundantly found in garlic, onions, leeks,
shallots and chives (Hofgen et al., 2001) and
are released when the plants are cut or smashed. These possess antimutagenic
and anticarcinogenic properties as well as immune enhancing and cardiovascular
protective properties (Vazquez-Prieto and Miatello, 2010).
Garlic and onions activate liver detoxification enzyme systems and are also
effective against tumors, bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites, cholesterol and
platelet/leukocyte adhesion factors.
Tocotrienols and tocopherols: Tocotrienols and tocopherols naturally
occur in grains and palm oil. Tocotrienols can supress breast cancer cell growth
but not the tocopherols, which on the other hand show cholesterol lowering effects.
MEDICINAL PROPERTIES
One of the more unique things about vegetables is the belief that some vegetables
act as medicines and are reserved for the sick and convalescence individuals
because of their mult-dimensional medicinal properties. Nearly half the medicines
being used today are of herbal origin and a quarter contains plant extracts
or active chemicals taken directly from various plants (Ahmad
et al., 2006). Many more have yet to be discovered as well as recorded
and researched. Only a few thousand have been studied so far, carrot being a
wonderful example. Carrot is a common vegetable that finds its way to the dining
table in the salad as well as cooked greens. As a fruit, it is an excellent
promoter of reproductive potential of man and animals but its seeds have proven
anti-fertility role. The beta carotene and other carotenoids in carrot also
provide protection against the oxidant induced changes in lipid peroxidation,
deoxy glucose transport, LDH release and amino acid and also protect the skin
from damaging effects of sunlight (Stahl and Sies, 2012).
The medicinal value is subordinated to the nutraceutical value and some foodstuffs
may have medicinal properties and can be administered as a therapeutic agent.
The knowledge about the healing features of fruits and vegetables has been well
preserved in the form of ethno-botanical tradition of the folk and ancient heritage
of medicine in all the countries. Some of our vegetables had originally been
used as medicinal plants, the difference between these two types are very vague.
The same compounds as are present in medicinal plants may equally be found in
vegetables. Some vegetable foods have been recognized as natural medicines;
in particular some vegetables and legumes have been used as traditional medicines
in China for many years. Adherence to vegetables particularly green and leafy
vegetables, tomatoes etc., and legumes (including soybean, peanut etc.) has
been found to be inversely associated with the chances of anaemia (Panigrahi
and Sahoo, 2011) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) in a large Chinese population
(Villegas et al., 2008a, b).
Folate present in fresh leafy green vegetables is helpful in reducing the risk
of chronic diseases that include: megaloblastic anemia; neural tube defects,
cardiovascular disease and cancers (Esfahani et al.,
2011; Shohag et al., 2012).
The medicinal uses of various common vegetables range from burn ointments to
diuretics. Parts of vegetables may be used to produce drugs, or may be effective
dietetic food. The lycopene present in tomato when present in the bloodstream
has been shown to protect against oxidation of low density lipoproteins and
thus reduces the incidence of arterial disease. Epidemiological studies have
also shown tomato consumption to reduce the risk of prostate cancer. The seeds
of the carrot are reported to possess emmenagogue and abortifacient properties
and are also used in uterine pain. Seeds of the pea (Pisum sativum L.)
are reported to possess antifertility and abortifacient actions (Vohra
et al., 1973). Oil obtained from pea seeds have been found to elicit
contraceptive action in albino rats. The active ingredient is m-xylohydroquinone;
a single dose of 1 mg caused abortion, reabsorption, or still births in mice
and rats. Foeniculum seeds are effective against hernias and hydrocele
when used with other salts or ingredients. Radish and green chillies, a common
constituent of salad, are good potentiators of uterine involution.
Vegetables can provide phytonutrients as well as nutritional components, such
as vitamins, minerals and fiber (Mattoo et al.,
2007; Orech et al., 2007; Murphy
et al., 2012; Bumgarner et al., 2012).
Some of dark green leafy vegetables like arugula, broccoli, spinach, kale and
cabbage; dandelion greens; swiss chard and watercress etc., provide a variety
of nutrients like vitamin A and B complex, vitamin E, major minerals (calcium
and phosphorous) and trace minerals (manganese and potassium) etc. Root vegetables
like beets are rich in vitamin B complex, vitamin C, manganese, magnesium, iron,
copper and phosphorus. A close relative of Indian drumstick, Moringa stenopetala
has highly nutritious leaves, edible flowers, edible pods, antibiotic properties
in seeds and the bark is used as a hot condiment with one of the highest calcium
levels and highest vitamin C levels. Young plantain leaves, consumed
raw in salad in Asia, are rich source in vitamin B1 and riboflavin. Plantain
are rich in various glycosides like aucubin, ascorbic acid, apigenin, baicalein,
benzoic and chlorogenic acid; citric and ferulic acid; oleanolic and salicylic
acid and ursolic acid, which are all having tremendous medicinal activities
viz., antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitusive, cardiac stimulant, diuretic,
laxative, antitussive, antiseptic, poultice, refrigerant and vermifuge. The
use of these drugs for the treatment of respiratory problems (asthma, bronchitis
and emphysema), bladder disorders, pyrexia, cardio-vascular disorders (hypertension),
rheumatism and blood sugar control has been scientifically proven. It also causes
a natural aversion to tobacco and is currently being used in preventing smoking.
Vegetables are an amazing source of antioxidants (Kiefer
et al., 2004; Odukoya et al., 2007;
Thompson et al., 2010) and vitamins (β-carotene,
vitamins C and E) (Esfahani et al., 2011; Mahima
et al., 2011). Pumpkin, tomato, carrot, garlic, clove; the list is
everlasting. Vegetables like carrots, pumpkins, acorn squash butternut squash,
Hubbard squash and sweet potatoes, also known as orange vegetables, are a rich
source of carotenoids, which act are known antioxidants. Due to presence of
antioxidants, higher intake of green leafy vegetables and cruciferous vegetables
reduces homocysteine and markers of oxidative stress (Singh
et al., 2009; Esfahani et al., 2011)
thus leading to lower risk of bladder cancer (Michaud
et al., 1999), non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) and particularly follicular
lymphoma (Thompson et al., 2010; Chiu
et al., 2011). Increased consumption of vegetables has also been
found to improve the Pneumovax II vaccination antibody response in older people,
leading to improved immunity (Gibson et al., 2012).
Garlic clove is also well recognized for protection against bowel cancer. These
antioxidants are also helpful in combating the oxidative stress induced by the
environmental pollutants such as heavy metals and pesticides (Singh
et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2012b).
Out of more than 600 carotenoids present in plants, only few like alphacarotene,
betacarotene, lycopene, zeaxanthine, lutein and betacryptoxanthine are utilized
by human beings. The high level of α-carotene, β-carotene, lutein,
zeaxanthin, lycopene and total carotenoids in blood circulation is helpful in
reduced risk of breast cancer in women (Eliassen et
al., 2012). Phytoene and phytofluene, precursors of higher unsaturated
carotenoids are responsible for photoprotective effects (Stahl
and Sies, 2012). AUSDA study also detected compromised immune function in
otherwise healthy females fed on low carotene diet. Green leafy vegetables are
rich in iron content required for synthesis of haemoglobin, hence suggested
in iron deficiency anaemia. Various minerals including the trace minerals are
also co-enzymes in certain biochemical reactions in the body (Mahima
et al., 2012c), which adds to the importance of leafy vegetables
in metabolic reactions.
The fiber content of vegetables provides a bulk in the diet. This helps to
reduce the intake of starchy foods, enhances gastrointestinal function, prevents
constipation and may thus reduce the incidence of metabolic diseases like maturity
onset, diabetes mellitus and hypercholesterolemia. The fibre cleanses the gut
by removing the various carcinogens from the body and prevents the absorption
of excess cholesterol. It also prevents the intake of excess starchy food and
therefore protect against metabolic disorders (hypercholesterolemia and diabetes
mellitus). Fibre from the seed coat and the cell walls of the cotyledon of peas
is beneficial for gastrointestinal function and health (Dahl
et al., 2012).
Some vegetables are also potent antibiotics, antihypertensive and blood building
agents and also improve fertility in females when eaten in soups. The phytochemical
contents of the leafy vegetables provde nutritive supplements for food and also
improve the health status of its consumers due to the existence of several compounds
fundamental for good health. Phytochemicals like polyphenolics and saponins
present in coloured seed coat of peas have potent antioxidant and anticarcinogenic
properties (Dahl et al., 2012). Polyphenols
play critical role in prevention of various diseases including of cardiovascular,
neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis and even cancer
(Hafidh et al., 2009; Mudgal
et al., 2010), hepatic damage (Salawu and Akindahunsi,
2006), inhibit angiogenesis (Sahib et al., 2010)
and obesity (El-Shebini et al., 2007). It is
well known and proven fact that certain foods possess potential to effectively
prevent many diseases as universal medicines. For example, the Mediterranean
diet is lowers the risks of coronary heart disease, cancer and cognitive impairment.
Consumption of green tea is beneficial for preventing cancer and Alzheimers
disease (AD) (Chen and Zhang, 2007). Green and yellow
vegetables decreases the risk of chronic disease and inhibits the development
of atherosclerosis (Wolfenden et al., 2012). Therefore,
it may lead to a reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease (Samman
et al., 2003; Adams et al., 2006;
Esfahani et al., 2011), diabetes (Imai
et al., 2012), stroke, markers of inflammation and oxidative stress
(Holt et al., 2009) viz., serum homocysteine
and markers of protein, lipid and DNA oxidation (Esfahani
et al., 2011). Such consumptions could also mitigate contaminant
exposure and/or their adverse health effects (Gagne et
al., 2013). The presence of mucilage in some vegetables makes their
soups more tasty and palatable.
Vegetables help in retaining stronger bones by decreasing the amount of calcium
excreted in the urine. They also act as an alkaline buffer neutralizing acids
produced when non-vegetarian diet is consumed. Major mineral components of the
leaves include calcium (1.22-4.13 mg 100 g-1), potassium (0.08-6.10
mg 100 g-1), sodium (0.03-6.84 mg 100 g-1) and iron (0.01-0.12
mg 100 g-1). Calcium is a major component giving strong bones, muscle
contraction and relaxation, synaptic transmission, blood clotting and absorption
of Vitamin especially B12. The relatively high content of calcium
in Gryllotalpa africana (4.13 mg 100 g-1), T. triangulare
(7.44 mg 100 g-1), potassium and magnesium are known to decrease
blood pressure. Potassium plays a crucial role in skeletal muscle contraction
and transmission of nerve impulses. Therefore, the persons having the soft bone
are usually advised to have the vegetables rich in calcium and potassium.
Phytoconstituents of vegetables are also very effective stimulants for the
nervous system of the body. The bitter leaf contains an alkaloid, vernomine,
which is capable of reducing headaches associated with hypertension (Ayitey-Smith,
1989). Broccoli is as excellent source of sulphoraphane, which has a powerful
anticancerous effect. Spinach retards central nervous system and cognitive behavioral
deficits. Ocimum species are rich in alkaloids that are useful in cold,
cough, chronic catarrh and migraine. The medicinal importance of tannins, saponins
and inulins which are components of traditional herbal preparations are highly
useful in managing various common ailments. Lesser medication and more natural
foods need to be have a priority place in our life but to get maximum health
benefits sufficient knowledge and understanding a necessity. The demarcation
between nutritious/medicinal vegetables and toxic vegetables is very thin. The
most commonly consumed tuber, potato (Solanum tuberosum), also contains
a toxin, solanine which is destroyed by heat.
VEGETABLES HAVING HERBAL POTENTIAL AND PERSPECTIVES
Raw potatoes are very useful in gastrointestinal problems like dyspeptia and
its topical application is helpful in pain or for softening furuncles (Vlachojannis
et al., 2010). Bidens biternata, a leafy vegetable for the
Paniya and Kattunaayika tribes in Kerala (India) is helpful to cure hepatitis,
cold, cough, dysentery, etc (Sukumaran et al., 2012).
The ginger and garlic possess antioxidant, anticancerous and antioxidant properties
(Tilak et al., 2005; Park
et al., 2012; Dhama et al., 2013c).
Due to presence of allicin in garlic, it is beneficial for the treating plasmodium
infection (Feng et al., 2012). The ginger and
onion posses therapeutic applications against bacterial infections particularly
due to gram positive bacteria (Alzorekya and Nakahara,
2003). Onion is helpful in lowering the lipid level in body and inhibits
the oxidation of low density lipoproteins (Ahmed and Bassuony,
2009). Sitaphal (Annona squamosa) helps in wound healing and boosting
immunity (Mahima et al., 2013b). Besides this,
intake of fruits and vegetables reduces the risk of chronic diseases like breast
cancer, diabetes mediated retinopathy and carotedi artery disease (Sun
et al., 2012). Methanolic extract of coriander is reported to be
antibacterial (Wong and Kitts, 2006). Flavonoids present
in fruit and vegetables can prevent colorectal neoplasm (Jin
et al., 2012).
VEGETABLES AS ETHNOVETERINARY MEDICINES (EVM)
The medicinal role of vegetables in veterinary health has been proven in many
studies (Kumar and Rahal, 2000; Rahal,
2006; Ahmad et al., 2006). Garlic and onion
are commonly used for the treatment of food poisoning, bloat, stomach-ache,
Foot-and-mouth Disease (FMD), skin infections and hypersensitivities, arthritis,
internal parasites and rheumatism. The extract of onion is useful in eye infections.
Onion roots are used to facilitate expulsion of the placenta and inhalation
of an essential oil from fresh bulb provides relief from cold etc. Coriander
is helpful in preventing tympany, food poisoning, diarrhea, constipation, indigestion
and dyspepsia (Wangensteen et al., 2004). Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare saunf) besides serving as antiflatulent also serves
as an estrus inducer.
ENRICHING HUMAN BODY WITH TRACE MINERALS WITH ADDITION OF FUNGI TO VEGETABLES
The addition of endomycorrhizal fungi in vegetables under certain conditions
help in increasing the uptake of trace elements. Such fungi include: Glomus
mossae; Glomus calendonium; spores of E3 as well as mycelium that
have been tested on various vegetables. Such vegetables include carrots and
onions; parsnips and potatoes. For treatment of plants, mycorrhizal inoculum
is used singly or in combination with rock phosphate; Nitrate-potash-and Phosphorus
(NPK) fertilizer; or ashes from wood; or can be placed in control group. There
is lower uptake of trace elements when plants are given only alone among the
tree fertilizers. It has been seen that on application of mycorrhizal innoculum
there is increase in content of trace elements. When the rock phosphate or NPK
fertilizers are used however in combination with the inoculum there is either
lower uptake of trace elements (except phosphorus) or there is colonization
of mycorrhiza. There is also increase in the uptake of trace elements on application
of both ashes of wood as well as the inoculums (Ward et
al., 2001).
RECENT TRENDS FOR EXPLORING MULTI-DIMENSIONAL USAGES OF VEGETABLES
Recently, the search for effective methods involving organic production of
the vegetables having higher and valuable nutritive value (overall) is of high
interest. Investigations have been carried out on the nutrient value of food
that are produced organically as well as conventionally but there are lack in
consistency of results (Worthington, 1999; Bourn
and Prescott, 2002; Mitchell and Chassy, 2007; Safefood
Consulting Inc., 2007). The differences in vitamin C as well as riboflavin
and beta-carotene between few green vegetables (Chinese mustard; Chinese kale;
lettuce; spinach and swamp cabbage) grown in this way have been examined. The
level of all the three nutrients have been found higher only in the swamp cabbage
among the food that is organically produced than that produced conventionally.
Higher levels of nutrients are usually contained in foods which are produced
organically, however the environmental as well as post-harvest factors may influence
the production if controlled poorly (Ismail and Fun, 2003).
The overuse of pesticides and herbicides inhibits the ability of plants to uptake
as well as accumulate phytochemicals. Synthetic fertilizers however, do not
contain various nutrients that are important for plants and may alter soil properties
resulting into inhibition of the uptake of various phytochemicals. These crucial
issues need to be considered for successful organic production systems to grow
and produce better vegetables (Halweil, 2007).
More recently, various plants have been identified as safe and economic expression
systems for producing the recombinant proteins viz., hormones, cytokines, monoclonal
antibodies, bulk enzymes and vaccines (Tacket, 2009;
Huy et al., 2011; Dhama
et al., 2013d). Transgenic tomatoes lines have been developed containing
the multiepitope antigenic gene of Toxoplasma gondii (Tg-MAG) which produces
tomatoes containing Tg-MAG recombinant protein with good immune activity (Zhou
et al., 2008). The edible plant parts can be used as oral vaccine
or some of the desired antigen can be purified from the plants and be used by
alternative routes (Dhama et al., 2013d). Various
plant species including cowpea, lettuce, maize, lupin, spinach, tobacco, potato
(Thanavala and Lugade, 2010), corn, pea, carrot (Zhang
et al., 2010) and tomato (Salyaev et al.,
2009; Soria-Guerra et al., 2011) etc., have
been used with different rate of success to express the candidate vaccine for
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (Horn et al.,
2003), malaria, Norwalk virus, rotavirus, measles, anthrax and human papillomavirus
(Giorgi et al., 2010) and Peste des petits ruminants
(PPR) (Khandelwal et al., 2011). Mucosal vaccines
against HIV, hepatitis B (Thanavala and Lugade, 2010),
tuberculosis and Newcastle disease virus (NDV), diptheria, whooping cough, tetanus,
Helicobacter pylori, Escherichia coli, norovirus etc., have been
developed using transgenic plants as bioreactors (Streatfield,
2006; Gomez et al., 2008; Tacket,
2007, 2009; Matsui et al.,
2009; Shchelkunov and Shchelkunova, 2010; Salyaev
et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2010;
Soria-Guerra et al., 2011; Mathew
et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2011;
Dhama et al., 2013d). Apart from these beneficial
applications, transgenic lettuce can be used for expressing cholera toxin B
subunit gene (CTB) fusion protein against porcine epidemic diarrhea virus infection
(Huy et al., 2011); protein F1-V from Yersinia
pestis to provide immunity against plague (Rosales-Mendoza
et al., 2010); transgenic potato for vaccine production against porcine
reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (Chen and Liu,
2011).
Genetic engineering has the capacity to significantly increase the phytonutrients
in plants and thus reducing the risk of chronic disease (Martin,
2012). Transplastomic tomatoes have been developed, which contain high carotenoid,
a potent antioxidant and provide precursor of vitamin A (Mattoo
et al., 2007; Apel and Bock, 2009; Fraser
et al., 2009). The unique purple (Pr) gene mutation in cauliflower
(Brassica oleracea var botrytis) formed a new variety with enhanced properties
of promotion of health and visual appeal (Chiu et al.,
2010). Scientists are also attempting to use the genetic and molecular approaches
for increasing the levels of tocopherols in potato (Solanum tuberosum)
tubers through metabolic engineering tools and techniques (Crowell
et al., 2008).
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES, CARE AND KITCHEN HYGIENE PRACTICES DURING USAGES
OF VEGETABLES
Vegetables may also be the source of many disease outbreaks for example of
norovirus by unhygienic practices of kitchen personnels (Baert
et al., 2011; Schmid et al., 2011),
Salmonella, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli O: 157 (Berger
et al., 2010) by consuming contaminated leafy vegetables, radish
sprouts and pre-packaged spinach. Diarrheic E. coli including enterotoxigenic
(ETEC), enteropathogenic (EPEC), enteroinvasive (EIEC), enteroaggregative (EAEC),
diffuse adherent (DAEC) and Shiga toxin-producing (STEC); E. coli (Castro-Rosas
et al., 2012); Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Tunung
et al., 2010); Salmonella (Singh et
al., 2005), Shigella and Listeria monocytogenes (Guchi
and Ashenafi, 2010; Franz et al., 2010;
Santana et al., 2012), intestinal helminthes
like Trichuris trichiura (Huat et al., 2012).
They may act as source of protozoa too, which include: Giardia and Cryptosporidium
(Amoros et al., 2010) commonly present on ready
to eat (RTE) vegetables particularly when the vegetables were grown in untreated
sewage water.
Various chemicals like pesticides; insecticides; herbicides and fungicides
used during the production of vegetables may play an important role in survival
and growth of microbes viz., Pseudomonas, Salmonella, E. coli
and other coliforms on vegetables and affect their shelf-life and public health
safety (Ng et al., 2005). Since raw Ready to
Eat (RTE) vegetables cannot be heated, therefore it is recommended that these
should be washed thoroughly and treated with food grade chemicals to reduce
the microbial load on them (Guchi and Ashenafi, 2010).
Salad dressing with spinach leaves mixed with vinegar and oil is helpful in
reducing the bacterial load (Faith et al., 2012).
So, there is a great need of effective intervention strategies for control of
infectious organisms in the vegetables (Dhama et al.,
2013a). Through washing followed by boiling and/or cooking processes is
also quite effective in reducing the pesticides and insecticides residues (Kaur
et al., 2011).
Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides or other synthetic compounds
leads to contamination of water and food sources including vegetables (Kumar
et al., 2008). Various vegetables like beans, brinjal, tomato, carrot,
cabbage, okra, spinach, green beans, green chilli, crucifers and cucurbits have
been reported to be containing the harmful insecticides like, chlorpyrifos,
cypermethrin, decamethrin, organophosphates, pyrethroids, imidacloprid, beta-cyfluthrin,
bifenthrin, fenvalerate, α-cypermethrin and λ-cyhalothrin (Arora,
2009; Kaur et al., 2011; Gowda
and Somashekar, 2012; Banerjee et al., 2012;
Bouri et al., 2012; Zhang
et al., 2012b). Thus there is increasing trend for the use of biological
control agents such as B. thuringiensis, a gram positive soil bacterium
(Bt) as effective biopesticides (Kumar et al., 2008),
commonly used in vegetables crop like Indian mustard (Brassica juncea)
(Cao et al., 2008) and brinjal (Kumar
et al., 2011). Vegetables with pest repellent properties are also
being attempted for example transgenic Chinese cabbage expressing the potato
proteinase inhibitor II gene (pinII) has the ability to repel pests (Zhang
et al., 2012a).
READY-TO-EAT PRODUCTS AND HEALTH HAZARDS
Now-a-days, there is an increase in trend of packaged or canned food, fast
food or processed food consumption due to socioeconomic changes in the life.
But the consumption of these foods is not always safe for the health. The dietary
pattern (consuming red or processed food) of western culture may increase the
development of colo-rectal cancer (Yusof et al.,
2012). Packaged/canned food are generally recognized as safe food but canned
vegetables and fruits and their juices, canned hot dog chili sauce etc are very
common cause of botulism outbreaks, which is a serious public health concern
and cause of high case mortality round the globe (Date
et al., 2011; Juliao et al., 2013).
In a study, fast food consumption may lead to more chances of asthama, rhinoconjunctivitis
and aczema (Ellwood et al., 2013). Deep fried
food can increase the risk of prostate cancer (Stott-Miller
et al., 2013). Ready-to-eat foods viz., packaged salads, sandwiches,
hamburger, precut packaged lettuce are also potent source of various pathogens
like Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria, verotoxic E. coli
etc (Hanning et al., 2008; Signorini
and Frizzo, 2009; Little et al., 2010; Taban
and Halkman, 2011; Boxall et al., 2011).
In Japan, consumption of pickles named Wafu-Kimuchi a Japanese style
pickle was the source of outbreak of enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7
(Ozeki et al., 2003). In the era of one health,
one medicine, all precautionary measures need to be adapted along with following
appropriate prevention and control measures for checking pathogens transmitted
to animals and humans from contaminated vegetables (Dhama
et al., 2013e, f).
CONTROLLED ABIOTIC STRESSES AS A TOOL FOR ENHANCING NUTRACEUTICAL CONTENT
AND ADDING-VALUE TO FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
The fresh fruit and vegetable industry is an important contributor to the world
economy. The global market for nutraceuticals and functional foods is expanding
at an exponential rate. Products containing nutraceuticals contributed an estimated
value of $65 billion (Lachance, 2002). Many nutraceuticals
(vitamin C, E, carotenoids etc) are antioxidants and have preventive roles against
certain cancers and cardiovascular diseases (Scheerens,
2001). There is a need to enhance the health benefit properties of fresh
produce which in turn will add value and create new opportunities for producers
and processors by reaching the health-oriented markets. This goal can be achieved
by providing technologies that can ensure the delivery of high quality products
with high quantities of the desired nutraceuticals.
Certain abiotic stress treatments, like temperature, UV light, wounding, phytohormones,
altered gas composition, heat shock and water stress etc., will influence the
secondary metabolism of fresh produce and augment the synthesis of phytochemicals
with nutraceutical activity or lessen the synthesis of undesirable compounds.
Abiotic stresses affect the biosynthesis of the three principal groups of secondary
metabolites viz., terpenes, phenolics and nitrogen-containing compounds. Phytochemical
accumulation or losses also gets affected by inducing an increase or reduction
in key enzyme activities of secondary metabolic pathways (Dixon
and Paiva, 1995). The fresh produce industry must explore the usefulness
of controlled stresses to enhance the health benefit properties of fresh-cut
or whole fresh produce. Similarly, the food processing and dietary supplement
industries can also utilize it to obtain healthier processed products or boost
nutraceutical yields.
Preharvest abiotic stresses have been used to enhance the quality and yield
of products in the field (Kalt et al., 2001).
Exposure to higher light intensity or those with less frequent irrigation has
been found to augment vitamin C production (Lee and Kader,
2000). An increase in pungency levels is seen in water-stressed pepper fruits
(Estrada et al., 1999). Postharvest abiotic stresses
may affect the levels of secondary metabolites in plant tissues. The ripening
and temperature affect anthocyanin accumulation and its content in certain fruits
(blackberries, apples and strawberries) and in colored potatoes during cold
storage (Lewis et al., 1999). Wounding helped
in increasing the anthocyanins and phenolic acids in red pigmented lettuce (Ferreres
et al., 1997) and phenolic compounds in carrots (Babic
et al., 1993a, b). Phytohormones, such as
ethylene induce phenolic compounds in carrots (Lafuente
et al., 1996). light stimulate the accumulation of chlorogenic acid
in potato tubers (Percival and Baird, 2000), anthocyanin
in red cabbage (Craker and Wetherbee, 1972) and apples
(Dong et al., 1995) and quercetin in apples
(Reay, 1999).
The genetic potential of vegetables and fruits can be boosted to yield products
with potent health benefit properties by using stresses to induce accumulation
of targeted phytochemicals. Controlled postharvest abiotic stresses have useful
applications in terms of increasing nutraceutical levels fruits and vegetables.
The UV irradiation enriched the resveratrol content in red table and wine grapes
(Cantos et al., 2000). Post-harvest abiotic
stresses such as methyl jasmonate increased the anthocyanin content in purple
fleshed potatoes (Reyes et al., 2001) and differentially
potentiated phenolic compounds, avoiding the accumulation of isocoumarin phytoalexins
in purple carrots (Heredia et al., 2001). Antioxidant
property of lettuce was found to be increased by wounding (Kang
and Saltveit, 2002).
The abiotic stresses are not always beneficial as phytochemical loss or production
of undesirable compounds has been reported after some stress treatments. Anthocyanin
loss due to the effect of carbon dioxide in stored pomegranate arils (Holcroft
et al., 1998) and strawberries (Gil et al.,
1997) and chlorophyll loss in broccoli due to temperature (Toivonen
and Sweeney, 1998) has been well documented. Heat treatments may reduce
anthocyanin accumulation in strawberries during storage and phenolic synthesis
in lettuce (Loaiza-Velarde and Saltveit, 2001). Water
stress may induce ascorbic acid loss in strawberries (Nunes
et al., 1998) and leafy greens (Lazan et
al., 1987). Induction of the bitter compounds, isocoumarin, in carrots
(Lafuente et al., 1996) and xauthotoxin in parsnips
(Shattuck et al., 1988) by the action of ethylene
has been observed.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
Vegetables are routinely used in day today life as a compulsory ingredient
of food. Their use in strengthening current community-based health services
due to multifactorial usages and potential. They are designated as healthy foods
of the millennium or Nutraceutical foods of the century. The current information
on the nutritive and medicinal value of leafy vegetables is only the tip of
the iceberg. In most cases, this knowledge is not well documented and disseminated,
however, what so ever has been explored that is sufficient enough to understand
the potential of vegetables in the form of household country medicine and betterment
of humanity without much difficulties and cost. Still there is a long way to
go as only a small part of natural medicinal components of vegetables has been
documented in established medicinal databases. It is not only expected but also
the need of time that with the progress of medicinal chemistry and pharmacology,
more and more medicinal components should be identified from foods. Moreover,
nowadays health professionals are aiming to the concept of food
sovereignty means the most of
vegetables the person eats are also grown by them. A better understanding of
fruits and vegetables along with their perspectives including of microbiological,
pharmaceutical, environmental, processing and food handling factors is the need
of the hour. All of these facilitate in development of methods, technologies
and policies aimed at reducing the risk of contamination of fresh produce and
sustaining there potent nutraceuticals, medicinal and pharmacological values.
Moreover, the used of plants including vegetables as bioreactors for the production
of recombinant proteins such as enzymes and vaccine should also be explored
to their full potential for safeguarding health of humans and their companion
animals.
|
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