Submit Manuscript

International Journal of Biological Chemistry

Year: 2014 | Volume: 8 | Issue: 2 | Page No.: 58-84
Facebook Twitter Digg Reddit Linkedin StumbleUpon E-mail

ABSTRACT

Recent years have seen tremendous progress in nanotechlogy to study and design of nanoparticles towards chemical analysis, medical diagnosis and treatment of disease. This review provides different activity of the nanoparticles as targeting ligands, imaging tools, therapeutic drugs, antimicrobials and other functionalities directed toward biomedical application. Nanoparticles (NPs) have gained intensive interest because they have special features, such as unusual optical properties, high stability, biological compatibility, controlable morphology, size dispersion, low toxicity and easy surface functionalization. These distinctive aspects have endorsed the development of novel NPs based assays for clinical diagnostics which promise increased sensitivity and specificity towards treatment of disease.
PDF Abstract XML References Citation
Received: April 24, 2014;   Accepted: May 09, 2014;   Published: September 17, 2014

How to cite this article

Gaurav Sharma, Nakuleshwar Dut Jasuja, Mohammad Irfan Ali and Suresh C. Joshi, 2014. A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles. International Journal of Biological Chemistry, 8: 58-84.

URL: https://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=ijbc.2014.58.84

Search

INTRODUCTION

Nanotechnologies can be defined as the design, characterization, fabrication and application of structures by controlling morphology and dimension at a nanometer scale. Potential benefits of nanomaterials are well documented in the literature and nanotechnology promises to far exceed the impact of the industrial revolution, extrapolative to become a $1 trillion market by 2015. Nanotechnology offers unique approaches to revolutionary impact on biology and medicine because of size dependent physical and chemical properties. Among the approaches for exploiting nanotechnology in diagnostic and therapeutics, nanoparticles offer some unique advantages as sensing, image improvement and antimicrobial agents. Therefore, nanoparticles (NPs) used for parentral, oral, ocular and transdermal application and sustained released formulations (Cai and Chen, 2008).

Nanotechnology is being applied extensively to provide targeted drug therapy, diagnostics, tissue regeneration, cell culture, biosensors and other tools in the field of molecular biology. Various nanotechnology platforms like nanotubes, liposomes, nanopores, dendrimers, quantum dots, fullerenes magnetic and radio controlled nanoparticles are being developed (Medina et al., 2007).

Nanoparticles (NPs) are promising agents for antibacterial applications because they are toxic to bacteria but not mammalian cells. Some antibacterial nanoparticles can be degraded by lysosomal fusion and thus appear non-toxic to mammalian cells (Taylor and Webster, 2011). A variety of moieties have been examined as targeting agents, including carbohydrates (Eliaz and Szoka, 2001) vitamins, (Zhang et al., 2007) aptamers (Farokhzad et al., 2006) transcriptional activator (Hu et al., 2008; Lu et al., 2009) peptides (Singh et al., 2009) and proteins such as transferrin and lectins (Ulbrich et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2010). Although, active agents, for instance ligands for the receptors and antibodies to the surface proteins have been used extensively to target specific cells.

Nanoparticles (NPs) derived from gold have paying attention towards biomedical applications as well as highly sensitive diagnostic assays thermal ablation and radiotherapy enhancement as well as drug and gene delivery (Soppimath and Betagri, 2007).

TYPES OF NANOPARTICLES

Liposomes: Liposomes are spherical nanoparticles prepared of lipid bilayer membranes with an aqueous interior but can be with multilamellar with multiple membranes or unilamellar with single lamella of membrane. These liposomes can be loaded with therapeutic agent either in the aqueous partition or in the lipid membrane. Generally lipid soluble drugs are loaded in the liposomal membrane and water soluble drugs are incorporated in aqueous compartment. The targeted liposomal preparations enhanced efficacy than non targeted liposomes (Park et al., 2004) (Table 1).

Table 1:Nanoparticles for medical applications
Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles
Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles

Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles
Fig. 1:Doxorubicin-loaded PEGylated liposomes

Several antibiotics have been encapsulated in liposomes. Liposome entrapped quinolones and macrolids enhanced the killing of mycobacterium avium complex. Encapsulated oflaxacin and clarithromycin increase the efficiency of drug. Liposomes drug targeted to specific tumor tissue by passive method. Immunoliposomes and enzyme linked immunoliposomes targeted to specific site of action by active method (Torchilin et al., 1994). Antibody Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy (ADEPT) consist of liposomes conjugated with enzyme and an antibody called enzyme linked immunoliposome are administered prior to pro drug activates prodrug selectively and minimize the toxicity of drug (Vingerhoeds et al., 1996). Such therapy used for epirubicin and doxorubicin (Xu and Mcleod, 2001) (Fig. 1). The folate conjugated liposomal drug enhanced targeted drug delivery toward the tumour. This method succesfully used in the treatment of leishmaniasis where liposomal hamycin conjugated with mannosy human serum albumin are targeted delivery towards human macrophages (Forssen and Willis, 1998).

Polyethylene Glycol (PEG), a charge-neutral molecule that reduces both protein binding and MPS (mononuclear phogocytic system) uptake and thus increases the length of time that the particles circulate in the blood to reaching the target (Grossman and McNeil, 2012). The PEG-coated cationic liposome loaded with 1-OHP used to targeting delivery for both tumor endothelial cells and tumor cells in a solid tumor. D-alpha-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate mono-ester (TPGS) coated multi-functional liposomes contain both docetaxel and Quantum Dots (QDs) used for cancer imaging and therapy (Muthu et al., 2012). Doxorubicin-loaded PEGylated liposomes functionalized with a peptide, octa-arginine (R8) increased the intracellular and intratumor delivery of doxorubicin (Biswas et al., 2013).

Nanopore: Nanopore consists of high density of pores (<20 nm). Nanopore does not allow immunoglobulin but allow entry of glucose and oxygen. Therefore, used as device to protect transplant tissue from host immune system.

Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles
Fig. 2:Multiwalled (MWCNT) and Single walled (SWCNT) carbon nanotube

This used for treatment of insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (Leoni and Desai, 2001). Modified Nanopore has ability to differentiate DNA strands and purines and pyrimidines used for DNA sequencing (Freitas, 2005).

Carbon nanotubes: Nanotube can be single walled (SWCNT) or multiwalled (MWCNT) in concentric manner (Reilly, 2007) (Fig. 2). The SWCNTs with glycopolymers and glycodendrimers used for biological recognition (Wu et al., 2008). Gal SWCNTs show strong cell adhesion capacity against E. coli 157:H7 strain (Gu et al., 2005) and B. anthracis (Luo et al., 2009). Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been used for phtothermal therapy (Kam et al., 2005) and targeted drug delivery (Liu et al., 2007) (Table 1).

Indium-111 radionuclide labelled carbon nanotube is investigated for killing cancer cells. Amphotericin B nanotube has shown increased drug delivery to target cell. β-galactosidase marker gene through nanotube shows greater expression (Prato et al., 2008). SWCNTs conjugated with monoclonal antibody elevated liver uptake and lesser renal uptake (Reilly, 2007). MWCNTs decorated with NiFe2O4 magnetic nanoparticles were used as voltammetric determination of cefixime (Ensafi and Allafchian, 2013). Silver nanoparticle (AgNPs) loaded with quaternary ammonium coated TiO2 nanotube displayed long term antibacterial capacity and good biocompatibility (Chen et al., 2013).

Quantum dots: Quantum Dots (QDs) consist of an inorganic core and aqueous organic coating conjugated with biomolecules (Fig. 3) to target various biomarkers (Daniel and Astruc, 2004) and useful in biological labeling or detection due to their optical, electronic and fluorescence properties (Gao et al., 2004). Hyaluronic acid coated QDs used for fluorescence imaging of lymphatic vessels (Bhang et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2010). The quantum dotes conjugated with Poly Ethylene Glycol (PEG) and antibody to prostrate specific membrane antigen were accumulated and retained in tumor tissue in mice (Gao et al., 2004).

Quantum dotes can also used for imaging of various cancer like melanoma, breast, lung and gastrointestinal tumors (Cai et al., 2007). Fluorescence produced by quantum dots enhanced to a large extent then NIR fluorescence system (Amiot et al., 2008).

Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles
Fig. 3: Quantum dotes conjugated with DNA, peptide and thiols group

Water soluble TGA-QDs (Thioglycolic acid) conjugated with to anti-HER 2 (anti-human epidermal growth factor receptor 2) antibodies. TGA-QDs/anti-HER2 can be used as fluorescent probes for cellular imaging of HER2-overexpressing cancer cells in vivo imaging applications (Ag et al., 2014).

Nanoshells: Nanoshells consist of silica core coated with thin metallic shell. Nanoshells absorbed infra red rays get heated and destroy the cells. This has been studied in HER 2 expressing SK-BR-3 human breast carcinoma cells that the control carcinoma cells did not lose viability even after treatment with nanoshells with non specific anti IgG or PEG and Near Infrared Radiation (NIR) ablation (Lowery et al., 2006). NIR absorbing gold-silica nanoshells have been prepared and evaluate for thermal ablation of tumors after systemic administration of nanoshells. Nanoshells are used for metastasis of tumors and treatment of diabetes. Nanoshells used for diagnostic purposes in blood immunoassay (Kherlopian et al., 2008).

Nanobubbles: Cancer therapeutic drugs incorporated in to bubble like structure called nanobubbles. These nanobubbles are stable at room temperature and when heated at physiological temperature collapse to form microbubbles. This gives the advantages of targeting the tumor tissue on ultrasound exposure (Klibanov, 2006). Doxorubicin drugs loaded nanobubbles on administration reach the tumor site and coalescing of nanobubbles which visualized by ultrasound techniques (Gao et al., 2008). Liposomal nanobubbles used in gene therapy for transfer of gene (Negishi et al., 2008). Nanobubbles are also used for removal of clot in vascular system (Iverson et al., 2008).

Nanospheres and nanocapsules: They are specially designed to encapsulate therapeutic agents protecting against enzymatic and chemical degradation. The drug is incorporated in a cavity lined by a polymer membrane in nanocapsules whereas matrix system in the drug is uniformly dispersed in nanospheres (Fig. 4). Biodegradable polymeric NPs have capable to controlled release of drugs due to capacity in targeting particular organs or tissues and also as carriers of DNA in gene therapy. These polymeric NPs have distinctive capability to deliver peptides, proteins and genes by the oral route.

Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles
Fig. 4:Nanosphere and Nanocapsule

These are used for oral, parenteral, ocular and transdermal applications in addition to used in cosmetics, hair care technology and sustained release formulations as well as a carrier for radio nucleotides in nuclear medicines (Krishna et al., 2006).

Paramagnetic nanoparticles: Magnetic NPs used in magnetic hypertherthermia therapy (Hilger et al., 2002), Drug Delivery (Hafeli and Chastellain, 2006) and cell sorting (Kocbek et al., 2013). Paramagnetic iron oxide NPs used as contrast agent in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and photothermal therapy against cancer (Joshefson, 2006). Feridox (Fe3O4) magnetic NPs used for liver imaging (Wang et al., 2001), contrast agent for MRI (Yang et al., 2009), immunoassay (Stoeva et al., 2006), biosenging (Gao et al., 2006) and drug delivery (Yu et al., 2008). Silica coated iron oxide PEG coated NPs with contrast element Gadolinium (Gd) used to access specific area of brain to detect tumor. Hyaluronic Acid (HA) coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanocrystals used as target specific MRI (Kamat et al., 2010) (Table 1).

Poly (amino acid) coated iron oxide NPs exhibit excellent biocompatibility and colloidal stability used in MRI (Yang et al., 2013). Paramagnetic NPs conjugated with antibodies have been detected breast cancer cells in vitro (Artemov et al., 2003). Glycansialyl functionalized iron oxide coated NPs used to target carbohydrate binding transmembrane protein (CD 62) (Van Kasteren et al., 2009). Paramagnetic NPs conjugated with leutinizing hormone releasing hormone as breast cancer cells used to detect breast cancer in vivo (Leuschner et al., 2005).

Magnetic NPs coated with antibodies together with nanoprobes used for identification of prostrate specific antigen. Iron NPs coated with monoclonal antibodies used for cancer therapy.The iron magnetic NPs are useful platforms to build receptors capable of displaying an effective molecular recognition (Fig. 5). Iron oxide NPs coated with the antracyclinic antibiotic Violamycine B1 used for the anti-tumor effect on MCF-7 cells (Kenia et al., 2013). Van-LaB6 at SiO2/Fe3O4 composite NPs have superparamagnetic propertie shows photothermal ablation efficiency against bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Lai and Chen, 2013).

Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles
Fig. 5:Paramagnetic nanoparticle

Dendrimers: Dendrimers are the branched NPs arise by means of polymerization (Astruc et al., 2010). Tectodendrimers are used for targeting, diagnosis, delivery of drug and imaging. PEG conjugated polyamidoamine dendrimers used for targated gene delivery to the brain (Huang et al., 2007a) (Table 1).

Magnetic NPs modified polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers enhanced efficacy in transfer of antisense surviving oligonucleotides against tumour cell lines. These methods offer an effective substitute to viral vectors of gene transfer for treatment of various tumours (Pan et al., 2007). Nanojuice TM Transfection Kit manufactures by EMD Chemicals Inc. and Superfect® are dendrimer based transfection reagent of Qiagen used for delivering DNA into the cell (QIAGEN, 2008). Silver sulfadiazine (AgSD) is a topical antibiotic coating with various PAMAM dendrimers (Fig. 6) provided a topical drug-delivery platform with enhanced antibacterial properties against burn-wound infections, comprising three nanostructures (Strydom et al., 2013).

Polymeric nanoparticles: Polymeric NPs have been used as therapeutic molecules to increase drug solubility, safety and delivery efficacy by enhanced permeablility and retention (EPR) effect (Sershen and West, 2002). Polymeric NPs have good stability and superior to liposomes in targeting them to specific organs by absorbing and coating their surface with various molecules (Mundargi et al., 2008). Polymeric NPs prepared by polymerization of polyester or cynoacrylate and method based on the polymerization by adding a monomer in to the dispersed phase of an emulsion (Bagul et al., 2012) (Table 1).

Aminoglycoside, streptomycin and tetracycline have been encapsulated in polymeric NPs used against intracellular B. melitensis (Seleem et al., 2009). pH sensitive polymeric nanoparticles are used for oral drug delivery, especially for peptide/protein drugs and poorly water-soluble medicines (Wang and Zhang, 2012). Poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide), poly(D,L-lactide) and polyethylene glycol-block-poly (D,L-lactide) were developed to encapsulate chloroaluminium phthalocyanine (AlClPc), a new hydrophobic photosensitiser polymeric NPs used in photodynamic therapy (PDT) (De Paula et al., 2013).

Gold nanoparticles: Gold have recognized importance in chemistry, physics and biology because of their unique optical (Huang et al., 2007b), electrical and photothermal properties (Kemp et al., 2009) due to Surface Plasma Resonance (SPR) (Hutter and Fandler, 2004).

Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles
Fig. 6(a-b): (a) Poly (glutamic acid) and (b) PAMAM dendrimer

Gold NPs (AuNPs) offer an inexpensive route to targeting cancer cells leaving healthy cells untouched (Pellequer and Lamprecht, 2009) (Table 1). The very small size of NPs (<100 nm) have a large specific surface to volume ratio have physical and chemical properties different from those of the same material (Chithrani et al., 2006). These properties enhanced or hindered particle aggregation depending on the type of surface functionalization, improved photoemission and enhanced surface catalytic activity (Shrestha et al., 2006). Solution of spherical AuNPs are red with SPR band at 520 nm depend on size of nanoparticles, referective index of surroundings medium shape and inter-particle distance (Sonnichsen et al., 2005). The AuNPs intended for single molecule detection by surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). For instance, antibody-modified AuNPs when used for detection of prostate specific antigen have nearly a million-fold higher sensitivity as compared to conventional ELISA-based assay (Kneipp et al., 2006).

Functionalization of AuNPs: Functionalization of AuNPs with biomolecules is used in order to develop stability, functionality and biocompatibility methodologies suitable for clinical diagnostics. Functionalization of AuNPs can be performed by either using chemical functional groups or biological molecules in addition to antibodies for signal enhancement in immunoassays (Wang et al., 2006) and carbohydrate functionalization to study specific molecular interactions (Ojeda et al., 2007) and surface functionalization with ligands that can be customized for specific protein binding (You et al., 2007) or direct binding of peptides and oligonucleotide and PEG to the AuNPs surface (Wang et al., 2006) (Fig. 7).

Glyconanoparticles: Carbohydrate functionalized NPs have the benefit of increasing the specific interactions between glycans and lectins for biosensing applications (El-Boubbou et al., 2010) (Table 1). The carbohydrate-protein interaction is relatively weak as compared to biotin-streptavidin interaction. These can be used for rapid, selective and quantitative detection method for the carbohydrate-binding protein concavalin A (Tsai et al., 2005). Mannose functionalized iron oxide NPs incubation with E. coli strain ORN 178 selectively attached with it and visualized by TEM (Liu et al., 2009; El-Boubbou et al., 2010) and used as contrast agent in liver targeting MRI (Yoo et al., 2008).

Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles
Fig. 7:Preparation of various types of gold nanoparticle conjugates with DNA, LNA, siRNA and combined peptide and DNA (Vigderman and Zubarev, 2013)

Gram positive pathogenic Streptococcus suis bacteria bind to galabiose using biotinylated sugar coated on streptavidin bearing magnetic particles (Pera et al., 2010). Globotriose functionalized AuNPs used to detect shinga like toxin produced by strain of E. coli (Chien et al., 2008). Lactose functionalized AuNPs used to detect and quantification of cholera toxin (Schofield et al., 2007). Sugar coated AuNPs with Gd (III) used for MRI (Marradi et al., 2009). Heparins coated AuNPs have been inhibited basic fibroblast growth factor-2 induced angiogenesis (Wang et al., 2010). Multifunctional glyconanoparticles containing lactose were prepared for carbohydrate based anticancer vaccines (Ojeda et al., 2007; Ahmed et al., 2009). Gold glyconanoparticles incubation with multimeric lectins induces aggregation (Sato et al., 2008).

Peptide capped AuNps: AuNPs conjugated with the amino acid sequence of cysteine terminated penta peptide show strong affinity for gold (Wang et al., 2005). The capability to self assemble into a dense layer that exclude water (amino acid with hydrophobic side chains) and a hydrophilic tail to enhance solubility and stability in water. This type of paptide capped NPs have been effectively utilized for kinase activity in a colorimetric method and the kinase substrate can be recognized by specific binding of AuNPs (Wang et al., 2006).

AuNps in immunoassays: AuNPs used for signal enhancement of the enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) where they can be incorporated with the antibodies (Hirsch et al., 2003; Tanaka et al., 2006) or coupled with silver enhancement (Gupta et al., 2007). In this technique both the primary and the secondary antibodies are conjugated with AuNPs to recognition of the chorionic gonadotropin hormone up to 1 pg mL-1 (Lai et al., 2007).

The sensitivity of chemiluminescent analysis of antibodies improved by using irregularly shaped AuNPs, which have 100-fold greater catalytic activity as compared to spherical AuNPs (Wang et al., 2006). Anti-IgG conjugated with these irregular AuNPs was effectively used to determine the IgG content of human plasma samples. Electrochemical approaches based on derivatization of electrodes with AuNPs been extensively used to the label free detection of the Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA). The immunosensors obtained showed high reproducibility and stability (Ou et al., 2007). The use of AgNPs enhanced fluorescence up to fivefold in immunoassays (Matveeva et al., 2007).

AuNps based DNA detection: AuNPs extensively used to detect protein in cross linking method (Huber et al., 2004). This method involves the capture of the analyte with a magnetic particle as recognition elements, followed by binding of a functionalized AuNP with a second recognition agent and barcode (marker) DNA strands. After magnetic separation the DNA barcodes are released and the DNA strands detected and quantified using AuNPs (Hill and Mirkin, 2006). This method exploite for detection the amyloid β derived diffusible ligands which is Alzheimer’s disease marker found extremely low concentrations (<1 pmol L-1) in the cerebrospinal fluid (Georganopoulou et al., 2005).

The AuNPs have been applied to the detection of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) and mutations associated with disease or metabolic variation (Doria et al., 2007). Other systems based on noncrosslinking DNA hybridization have been applied to characterization and detection of human SNP sequences achieved by signal amplification by autometallography have 1000 fold increase of the detection signal (Huber et al., 2004). In order to enhance sensitivity for quantification of target DNA/RNA samples, the detection system was directly integrated in an amorphous/nanocrystalline silicon device (Martins et al., 2007).

Recently, an perfection in noncrosslinking DNA hybridization for SNPs detection have been used in which SPR imaging allowed a limit of detection of 32 nmol (Sato et al., 2006). A SPR method was used to enhance sensitivity of detection of p53 cDNA at sub-attomole concentrations using AuNPs in cancer diagnosis (Yao et al., 2006).

Thiol linked ssDNA modified AuNps used for the colorimetric detection of DNA targets (Storhoff et al., 2004). The hybridization of the two AuNPs with the target resulted in the formation of a polymeric network by cross-linking mechanism, which results in a red to blue color change (Li et al., 2006). Recently this method successfully used for specific detection of DNA sequences for endonuclease activity (Xu et al., 2007) and eukaryotic gene expression (RNA) without the need for retro transcription or PCR amplification steps (Eaton et al., 2007).

AuNps in bioimaging: The colorimetric contrast observed within the AuNPs treated cells controlled by size (Khlebtsov et al., 2005), shape and surface modification (Murphy and Jana, 2002) of the AuNPs due to a phenomenon called Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) (Sharma et al., 2006). The SPR of AuNPs caused by scatter or absorbs light in the visible or NIR spectrum (Jain et al., 2006). This is an extremely useful property for in vivo optical imaging techniques for instance photoacoustic (Agarwal et al., 2007) and two-photon luminescence imaging (Durr et al., 2007).

In addition to MRI (Debouttiere et al., 2006) and X-ray Computed Tomography (X-ray CT) (Kim et al., 2007) have utilized AuNPs as contrasting agent due to the easiness of surface modification and higher X-ray absorption coefficient, respectively. The MRI images can be improved by reducing the longitudinal and transverse relaxation time of the water proton. The enhancement is observed by the use of contrasting agents such as gadolinium (Caravan et al., 1999) or Lanthanide III chelates (Aime et al., 1998). The most extensively used contrasting agent for MRI is gadolinium diethyltriaminepentaacetic acid (Gd-DTPA) (Sharma et al., 2006). In spite of the contrast improvement, the imaging application of Gd-DTPA is still hindered by their rapid renal clearance. For best possible contrast enhancement, AuNPs have been utilized as a delivery vehicle to convey multiple Gd-DTPA complexes into selective targets. Dithiolated DTPA (DTDTPA) has been also utilized in place of DTPA to bind to ionic Gd-III and allow conjugation onto 2-2.5 nm AuNPs surface. In the MRI study performed by Debouttiere et al, Gd-DTDTPA/AuNPs conjugates retain the intrinsic contrasting property of Gd-DTPA under MRI and provide the effective contrast enhancement as compared to single Gd-DTPA (Debouttiere et al., 2006).

X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) is another diagnostic technique that generates three dimensional images of different cells. Recently Kim et al. (2007) performed CT studies on AuNPs coated with Poly-ethylene Gycol (PEG) as antibiofouling agents to test their in vivo application as CT contrast agents for angiography and hepatoma detection (Lee et al., 2006).

The redox systems of naturally available phytochemicals in cinnamon can be effectively used for generation of uniform sized AuNPs with coating of phytochemicals. Cin-AuNPs are biocompatible and delivered effectively to lungs with minimal distribution to other organs and thereby can serve as lung imaging agent (Shukla et al., 2008).

AuNPs coated with Pyrocatechol Violet (PCV) as a reducer agent used in selective colorimetric detection of antibiotics kanamycin mono sulfate (KA), neomycin sulfate (NE), streptomycin sulfate (ST) and bleomycin sulfate (BL) which could be observed with the naked eye or a UV-vis spectrophotometer (Zhang et al., 2013).

AuNps in biosensing: Biosensors employ biological molecules such as antibodies, enzymes, carbohydrates and nucleic acids to identify biological phenomena. Interactions, such as hydrogen bonding and charge transfers between the ligand and receptor molecules, coupled with read out techniques such as colorimetry, fluorescence, biomagnetic signals are used for sensing specific biochemical events (Otsuka et al., 2001).

Biosensors are finding use in various applications such as food processing, to monitor food borne pathogens in the food supply, environmental monitoring, to detect pollutants, pesticides in the environment, detection of bacteria, viruses and biological toxins and clinical diagnostics to measure blood glucose levels (Li and Rothberg, 2004; Tsai et al., 2005).

Gold nanoshells used for detection of streptovidin-biotin interation in human blood as optical biosensor (Wang et al., 2008). AuNPs exhibit special optical and electronic properties such as enhanced SPR, surface enhanced emission and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) (Huang et al., 2007a; Keren et al., 2008) exploit as sensing or monitoring protein-protein interaction, protein aggregation and protein folding (De et al., 2007; GhoshMoulick et al., 2007).

The SPR signals of AuNPs have been used not only to selectively detect DNAs but also to differentiate between perfect and mismatched DNA duplex. Moreover, the colorimetric transition temperatures of the nanoparticle aggregates were used to differentiate a perfect match target from a mismatch base target. It distinguishes between oligonucleotide sequences using Ag surface enhancement of SERS as readout and several dissimilar DNA targets and two RNA targets (Qian et al., 2008).

A new aggregation phenomenon of DNA functionalized AuNPs, induced by noncross linking target DNA hybridization have been allows simple and rapid colorimetric sensing of DNA hybridization that is sensitive to detect terminal single base pair mismatches. Based on its simplicity and easy read-out this technique has opened up a new possibility for genetic diagnosis (Sato et al., 2005).

Concanavalin (ConA) mannose interaction has been investigated using mannose modified AuNPs (ManAuNPs). It was demonstrated that the interaction between ConA and ManAuNPs resulted in aggregation (blue colored aggregates) suggesting specific binding of ManAuNPs to ConA. These sensors use glucose oxidase immobilized on AuNPs to detect glucose concentrations (Pandey et al., 2007).

Using AuNPs to which a yeast iso-1-cytochrome c (Cytc) is covalently attached. Upon exposure to buffers of different pH, the appended Cytc unfolds at low pH, thus inducing AuNPs aggregation while refolding at high pH, results in the loss of aggregation (Jensen et al., 2007) and detected by UV-VIS absorption spectroscopy (Chah et al., 2005). In a similar manner, the pH dependent shifts in the AuNPs plasmon resonance have been used to track protein structural changes induced by glycation (GhoshMoulick et al., 2007), a modification that is of importance in the clinicopathology of diabetes (Hudson et al., 2002).

Targeted chemotherapy using AuNPs: AuNPs conjugated with many cancer drugs such as cisplatin, 5-flurouracil, paclitaxel, kahalilide F, tamoxifen and doxorubicin increased specificity to cancer cells (Fig. 8). The use of AuNps conjugated to a molecule of a tumor killing agent called tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF) as well as a molecule of thiol derivatized polyethylene glycol (PEG-THIOL), which hides the TNF bearing nanoparticle from the immune system (Mocellin and Nitti, 2008). The combination of AuNPs, TNF and PEG-THIOL is named aurmine (Libutti et al., 2010). CytImmune (a nanotechnology company) uses a combination of two techniques to target the TNF-carrying nanoparticle to cancer tumors.

Image for - A Review on Nanomedicinal and Nanosensing Potential of Nanoparticles
Fig. 8: Anticancer drugs covalently conjugated to gold nanoparticles (Vigderman and Zubarev, 2013)

First, the nanoparticle is intended to be too big to exit most healthy blood vessels however some blood vessels situated at the site of tumors are spongy, allowing the nanoparticles to exit the blood vessel at the tumor site. The second technique involves the TNF molecules binding to the tumor. TNF have found to be most effective when administered with other chemotherapy drugs (Ruoslahti et al., 2010). Methotrexate conjugated with AuNPs showed antitumor effect (Chen et al., 2007b).

Targeted photothermal therapy using AuNPs : Gold nanorods have a longitudinal absorption band in the NIR on account of their SPR oscillations and are effective as photothermal agents (Huang et al., 2006). Other gold nanostructures such as gold nanoshells (Loo et al., 2004), gold nanocages (Chen et al., 2007a) and gold nanospheres (Huang et al., 2008) have also efficient photothermal destruction of cancer cells and tissue. Nanoparticles selectively accumulate in tumor tissue via a phenomenon called Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect (Grossman and McNeil, 2012). Although nanoparticles based therapeutics exploits EPR effect for delivery into tumors, not all tumors are amenable to this effect, especially in regard to the delivery of the nanoparticles of relatively large size (Chytil et al., 2008).

In addition, selective photothermolysis is not obtained for small tumors or single metastatic cells because heat diffusion from hot particles increases the damaged tissue area with longer exposure times (Zharov et al., 2005).

AuNPs conjugated to antibodies (Huang et al., 2006) and viral vectors (Everts et al., 2006) could be used for selective and efficient photothermal therapy. Huang et al. (2006) have investigated that gold nanorods conjugated to antiepidermal growth factor receptor (anti-EGFR) antibodies selectively target cell lines that overexpress EGFR.

Similarly, treatment of breast cancer cell line overexpressing HER2 with HER2-targeted gold nanoshells (Lowery et al., 2006; Bernardi et al., 2008) and nanocages (Chen et al., 2007a) followed by exposure to laser light in the NIR has been used to selectively induce cell death to the HER2 positive cell in vitro.

Targetaed delivery using AuNps: Several investigators have grafted different delivery platforms onto AuNPs surface to attempt cellular selectivity, internalization and localization within heterogeneous population of cancer cells in solid tumors (El-Sayed et al., 2005; De la Fuente et al., 2006; Huang et al., 2006). The gold nanorods absorb laser energy, heating the surrounding tissue increases tissue permeability and stimulate expression of receptor proteins on the surface of the tumor cells (Ruoslahti et al., 2010).

Delivery of AuNPs into a living system requires overcoming natural biological barriers such as the cell membrane and the Reticuloendothelial System (RES) (Cai and Chen, 2008). Large AuNPs are quickly opsonized by blood and eliminated by the RES in mammalian cells (Paciotti et al., 2006). To bypass RES, antibiofouling agents such as thiol derivatized polyethylene glycol (PEG-SH) coated AuNPs as secondary coating. It has been observed that this secondary coating could delay RES clearance to liver from 0.5-72 h (Niidome et al., 2006).

AuNPs in antibacterial therapeutics and diagnosis: Antibiotic like ampicilin, streptomycin and kanamycin conjugated with AuNPs showed greater antibacterial activity and reduce MIC compared to free form against E. coli DH5á, Micrococcus luteus and staphylococcus aureus (Bhattacharya et al., 2012; Robert, 2013).

AuNPs conjugated with hydrophilic photosensitizer such as toludine blue O act as dual function agent in photodynamic inactivation and hythermia against S. aureus (Gil-Tomas et al., 2007; Perni et al., 2009).

Gliadin nanoparticles (GNP) have the ability to deliver the antibiotics at the site of infection. GNP bearing clarithromycin (CGNP) and omeprazole (OGNP) prepared by desolvation method and has strong mucoadhesive propensity and specificity towards stomach (Bagul et al., 2012).

The antimicrobial activity of the antibiotic vanamycin enhanced by coating with AuNPs against vanamycin resistant Enterococci (VRE) (Gu et al., 2003; Burygin et al., 2009). AuNPs conjugated with cefactor (â lactum antibiotic) have potent antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli (Rai et al., 2010). AuNPs coated with aminoglycosidic antibiotics have antibacterial effect against a range of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria (Grace and Pandian, 2007).

Au/N-G (Nitrogen-doped graphene) modified electrode, the electrochemical response of chloramphenicol (CAP) was significantly increased due to the synergetic effect of two nanomaterials (Borowiec et al., 2013).

AuNPs/MWCPE (multi walled modified carbon paste electrode) shows excellent analytical performance for the determination of cefixime (Afkhami et al., 2013). In addition to AuNPs applied to clinical diagnosis for rapid and sensitive detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical samples (Cuenca et al., 2006).

CONCLUSION

Nanotechnology in future would play important role in development of new drug and drug delivery platform. This review focused on current application of nanoparticles with special reference of AuNPs and gives an idea for further development, design and application of nanoparticles for use in nanomedicine.

REFERENCES

  1. Afkhami, A., F. Soltani-Felehgari and T. Madrakian, 2013. Gold nanoparticles modified carbon paste electrode as an efficient electrochemical sensor for rapid and sensitive determination of cefixime in urine and pharmaceutical samples. Electrochimica Acta, 103: 125-133.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  2. Agarwal, A., S.W. Huang, M. O'Donnell, K.C. Day, M. Day, N. Kotov and S. Ashkenazi, 2007. Targeted gold nanorod contrast agent for prostate cancer detection by photoacoustic imaging. J. Applied Phys., Vol. 102.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  3. Ahmed, M., Z. Deng, S. Liu, R. Lafrenie, A. Kumar and R. Narain, 2009. Cationic Glyconanoparticles: Their complexation with DNA, cellular uptake and transfection efficiencies. Bioconjugate Chem., 20: 2169-2176.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  4. Aime, S., M. Fasano and E. Terreno, 1998. Lanthanide(III) chelates for NMR biomedical applications. Chem. Soc. Rev., 27: 19-29.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  5. Ensafi, A.A. and A.R. Allafchian, 2013. Multiwall carbon nanotubes decorated with NiFe2O4 magnetic nanoparticles, a new catalyst for voltammetric determination of cefixime. Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces, 102: 687-693.
    CrossRef
  6. Alosfur, F.K.M., M.H.H. Jumali, S. Radiman, N.J. Ridha and A.A. Umar, 2014. In-situ dressing of MWCNTs with TiO2 nanoparticles: Microwave-assisted synthesis towards water treatment. Procedia Technol., 12: 264-270.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  7. Amiot, C.L., S. Xu, S. Liang, L. Pan and J.X. Zhao, 2008. Near-infrared fluorescent materials for sensing of biological targets. Sensors, 8: 3082-3105.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  8. Artemov, D., N. Mori, B. Okollie and Z.M. Bhujwalla, 2003. MR molecular imaging of the Her-2/neu receptor in breast cancer cells using targeted iron oxide nanoparticles. Magn. Reson. Med., 49: 403-408.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  9. Astruc, D., E. Boisselier and C. Ornelas, 2010. Dendrimers designed for functions: From physical, photophysical and supramolecular properties to applications in sensing, catalysis, molecular electronics, photonics and nanomedicine. Chem. Rev., 110: 1857-1959.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  10. Bagul, R., V. Mahajan and A. Dhake, 2012. New approach in nanoparticulate drug delivery system-A review. Int. J. Curr. Pharm. Res., 4: 29-38.
    Direct Link
  11. Bao, X., Z. Qiang, W. Ling and J.H. Chang, 2013. Sonohydrothermal synthesis of MFe2O4 magnetic nanoparticles for adsorptive removal of tetracyclines from water. Separat. Purific. Technol., 117: 104-110.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  12. Bernardi, R.J., A.R. Lowery, P.A. Thompson, S.M. Blaney and J.L. West, 2008. Immunonanoshells for targeted photothermal ablation in medulloblastoma and glioma: An in vitro evaluation using human cell lines. J. Neurooncol., 86: 165-172.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  13. Bhang, S.H., N. Won, T.J. Lee, H. Jin and J. Nam et al., 2009. Hyaluronic acid-quantum dot conjugates for in vivo lymphatic vessel imaging. ACS Nano, 3: 1389-1398.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  14. Bhattacharya, D., B. Saha, A. Mukharjee, C.R. Santra and P. Karmakar, 2012. Gold nanoparticles conjugated antibiotics: Stability and functional evaluation. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 2: 14-21.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  15. Biswas, S., N.S. Dodwadkar, P.P. Deshpande, S. Parab and V.P. Torchilin, 2013. Surface functionalization of doxorubicin-loaded liposomes with octa-arginine for enhanced anticancer activity. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm., 84: 517-525.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  16. Lai, B.H. and D.H. Chen, 2013. Vancomycin modified LaB6@SiO2/Fe3O4 composite nanoparticles for near-infrared photothermal ablation of bacteria. Acta Biomaterialia, 9: 7573-7579.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  17. Burygin, G.L., B.N. Khlebtsov, A.N. Shantrokha, L.A. Dykman, V.A. Bogatyrev and N.G. Khlebtsov, 2009. On the enhanced antibacterial activity of antibiotics mixed with gold nanoparticles. Nanoscale Res. Lett., 4: 794-801.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  18. Cai, W. and X. Chen, 2008. Multimodality molecular imaging of tumor angiogenesis. J. Nucl. Med., 49: 113S-128S.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  19. Cai, W., A.R. Hsu, Z.B. Li and X. Chen, 2007. Are quantum dots ready for in vivo imaging in human subjects. Nanoscale Res. Lett., 2: 265-281.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  20. Caravan, P., J.J. Ellison, T.J. McMurry and R.B. Lauffer, 1999. Gadolinium(III) chelates as MRI contrast agents: Structure, dynamics and applications. Chem. Rev., 99: 2293-2352.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  21. De Paula, C.S., A.C. Tedesco, F.L. Primo, J.M. Vilela, M.S. Andrade and V.C. Mosqueira, 2013. Chloroaluminium phthalocyanine polymeric nanoparticles as photosensitisers: Photophysical and physicochemical characterisation, release and phototoxicity in vitro. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci., 49: 371-381.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  22. Carrasco-Sanchez, V., A. Vergara-Jaque, M. Zuniga, J. Comer and A. John et al., 2014. In situ and in silico evaluation of amine- and folate-terminated dendrimers as nanocarriers of anesthetics. Eur. J. Med. Chem., 73: 250-257.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  23. Chah, S., M.R. Hammond and R.N. Zare, 2005. Gold nanoparticles as a colorimetric sensor for protein conformational changes. Chem. Biol., 12: 323-328.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  24. Chen, J., D. Wang, J. Xi, L. Au and A. Siekkinen et al., 2007. Immuno gold nanocages with tailored optical properties for targeted photothermal destruction of cancer cells. Nano Lett., 7: 1318-1322.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  25. Chen, Y.H., C.Y. Tsai, P.Y. Huang, M.Y. Chang and P.C. Cheng et al., 2007. Methotrexate conjugated to gold nanoparticles inhibits tumor growth in a syngeneic lung tumor model. Mol. Pharm., 4: 713-722.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  26. Chien, Y.Y., M.D. Jan, A.K. Adak, H.C. Tzeng and Y.P. Lin et al., 2008. Globotriose-functionalized gold nanoparticles as multivalent probes for shiga-like toxin. ChemBioChem., 9: 1100-1109.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  27. Chithrani, B.D., A.A. Ghazani and W.C. Chan, 2006. Determining the size and shape dependence of gold nanoparticle uptake into mammalian cells. Nano Lett., 6: 662-668.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  28. Chu, M., Y. Shao, J. Peng, X. Dai, H. Li, Q. Wu and D. Shi, 2013. Near-infrared laser light mediated cancer therapy by photothermal effect of Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles. Biomaterials, 34: 4078-4088.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  29. Chytil, P., T. Etrych, C. Konak, M. Sirova and T. Mrkvan et al., 2008. New HPMA copolymer-based drug carriers with covalently bound hydrophobic substituents for solid tumour targeting. J. Control Release, 127: 121-130.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  30. Ciepluch, K., M. Ionov, J. Majoral, M.A. Munoz-Fernandez and M. Bryszewska, 2014. Interaction of phosphorus dendrimers with HIV peptides-Fluorescence studies of nano-complexes formation. J. Luminescence, 148: 364-369.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  31. Cuenca, A.G., H. Jiang, S.N. Hochwald, M. Delano, W.G. Cance and S.R. Grobmyer, 2006. Emerging implications of nanotechnology on cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. Cancer, 107: 459-466.
    CrossRefPubMed
  32. Daniel, M.C. and D. Astruc, 2004. Gold nanoparticles:  Assembly, supramolecular chemistry, quantum-size-related properties and applications toward biology, catalysis and nanotechnology. Chem. Rev., 104: 293-346.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  33. De la Fuente, J.M., C.C. Berry, M.O. Riehle and A.S.G. Curtis, 2006. Nanoparticle targeting at cells. Langmuir, 22: 3286-3293.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  34. De, M., C.C. You, S. Srivastava and V.M. Rotello, 2007. Biomimetic interactions of proteins with functionalized nanoparticles: A thermodynamic study. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 129: 10747-10753.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  35. Debouttiere, P.J., S. Roux, F. Vocanson, C. Billotey and O. Beuf et al., 2006. Design of gold nanoparticles for magnetic resonance imaging. Adv. Funct. Mater., 16: 2330-2339.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  36. Ag, D., R. Bongartz, L.E. Dogan, M. Seleci and J. Walter et al., 2014. Biofunctional quantum dots as fluorescence probe for cell-specific targeting. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces, 114: 96-103.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  37. Dong, S. and M. Roman, 2007. Fluorescently labeled cellulose nanocrystals for bioimaging applications. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 129: 13810-13811.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  38. Doria, G., R. Franco and P. Baptista, 2007. Nanodiagnostics: Fast colorimetric method for single nucleotide polymorphism/mutation detection. IET Nanobiotechnol., 1: 53-57.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  39. Durr, N.J., T. Larson, D.K. Smith, B.A. Korgel, K. Sokolov and A. Ben-Yakar, 2007. Two-photon luminescence imaging of cancer cells using molecularly targeted gold nanorods. Nano Lett., 7: 941-945.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  40. Eaton, P., G. Doria, E. Pereira, P.V. Baptista and R. Franco, 2007. Imaging gold nanoparticles for DNA sequence recognition in biomedical applications. IEEE Trans. NanoBiosci., 6: 282-288.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  41. El-Boubbou, K., D.C. Zhu, C. Vasileiou, B. Borhan, D. Prosperi, W. Li and X. Huang, 2010. Magnetic glycol-nanoparticles: A tool to detect, differentiate and unlock the glyco-codes of cancer via magnetic resonance imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 132: 4490-4499.
    CrossRef
  42. Eliaz, R.E. and F.C. Szoka, 2001. Liposome-encapsulated doxorubicin targeted to CD44 a strategy to kill CD44-overexpressing tumor cells. Cancer Res., 61: 2592-2601.
    Direct Link
  43. El-Sayed, I.H., X. Huang and M.A. El-Sayed, 2005. Surface plasmon resonance scattering and absorption of anti-EGFR antibody conjugated gold nanoparticles in cancer diagnostics: Applications in oral cancer. Nano Lett., 5: 829-834.
    CrossRef
  44. Everts, M., V. Saini, J.L. Leddon, R.J. Kok and M. Stoff-Khalili et al., 2006. Covalently linked Au nanoparticles to a viral vector:  potential for combined photothermal and gene cancer therapy. Nano Lett., 6: 587-591.
    CrossRef
  45. Farokhzad, O.C., J. Cheng, B.A. Teply, I. Sherifi, S. Jon et al., 2006. Targeted nanoparticle-aptamer bioconjugates for cancer chemotherapy in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 103: 6315-6320.
    CrossRef
  46. Xu, F., Y. Yuan, X. Shan, C. Liu, X. Tao, Y. Sheng and H. Zhou, 2009. Long-circulation of hemoglobin-loaded polymeric nanoparticles as oxygen carriers with modulated surface charges. Int. J. Pharm., 377: 199-206.
    CrossRef
  47. Forssen, E. and M. Willis, 1998. Ligand-targeted liposomes. Adv. Drug Delivery Rev., 29: 249-271.
    CrossRef
  48. Freitas, R.A., 2005. Current status of nanomedicine and medical nanorobotics. J. Comput. Theor. Nanosci., 2: 1-25.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  49. Gao, J., L. Li, P.L. Ho, G.C. Mak, H. Gu and B. Xu, 2006. Combining fluorescent probes and biofunctional magnetic nanoparticles for rapid detection of bacteria in human blood. Adv. Mater., 18: 3145-3148.
    CrossRef
  50. Gao, X., Y. Cui, R.M. Levenson, L.W. Chung and S. Nie, 2004. In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots. Nat. Biotechnol., 22: 969-976.
    CrossRefPubMed
  51. Gao, Z., A.M. Kennedy, D.A. Christensen and N.Y. Rapoport, 2008. Drug-loaded nano/microbubbles for combining ultrasonography and targeted chemotherapy. Ultrasonics, 48: 260-270.
    CrossRef
  52. Georganopoulou, D.G., L. Chang, J.M. Nam, C.S. Thaxton, E.J. Mufson, W.L. Klein and C.A. Mirkin, 2005. Nanoparticle-based detection in cerebral spinal fluid of a soluble pathogenic biomarker for Alzheimer's disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 102: 2273-2276.
    CrossRef
  53. GhoshMoulick, R., J. Bhattacharya, C.K. Mitra, S. Basak and A.K. Dasgupta, 2007. Protein seeding of gold nanoparticles and mechanism of glycation sensing. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnol. Biol. Med., 3: 208-214.
    CrossRef
  54. Gil-Tomas, J., S. Tubby, I.P. Parkin, N. Narband and L. Dekker et al., 2007. Lethal photosensitisation of Staphylococcus aureus using a toluidine blue O-tiopronin-gold nanoparticle conjugate. J. Mater. Chem., 17: 3739-3746.
    CrossRef
  55. Grace, A.N. and K. Pandian, 2007. Antibacterial efficacy of aminoglycosidic antibiotics protected gold nanoparticles-A brief study. Colloids Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects, 297: 63-70.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  56. Grossman, J.H. and S.E. McNeil, 2012. Nanotechnology in cancer medicine. Physics Today, 65: 38-42.
    Direct Link
  57. Gu, L., T. Elkin, X. Jiang, H. Li and Y. Lin et al., 2005. Single-walled carbon nanotubes displaying multivalent ligands for capturing pathogens. Chem. Commun., 7: 874-876.
    CrossRef
  58. Gu, H., P.L. Ho, E. Tong, L. Wang and B. Xu, 2003. Presenting vancomycin on nanoparticles to enhance antimicrobial activities. Nano Lett. 3: 1261-1263.
    CrossRef
  59. Gupta, S., S. Huda, P.K. Kilpatrick and O.D. Velev, 2007. Characterization and optimization of gold nanoparticle-based silver-enhanced immunoassays. Anal. Chem., 79: 3810-3820.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  60. Hafeli, U.O. and M. Chastellain, 2006. Magnetic Nanoparticles in Drug Carrier. Imperial College Press, London, UK., pp: 397-418.
  61. Yang, H.M., C.W. Park, T. Ahn, B. Jung, B.K. Seo, J.H. Park and J.D. Kim, 2013. A direct surface modification of iron oxide nanoparticles with various poly(amino acid)s for use as magnetic resonance probes. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 391: 158-167.
    CrossRef
  62. Hilger, I., R. Hiergeist, R. Hergt, K. Winnefeld, H. Schubert and W.A. Kaiser, 2002. Thermal ablation of tumors using magnetic nanoparticles: An in vivo feasibility study. Invest. Radiol., 37: 580-586.
    Direct Link
  63. Hill, H.D. and C.A. Mirkin, 2006. The bio-barcode assay for the detection of protein and nucleic acid targets using DTT-induced ligand exchange. Nat. Protocols, 1: 324-336.
    CrossRef
  64. Hirsch, L.R., J.B. Jackson, A. Lee, N.J. Halas and J.L. West, 2003. A whole blood immunoassay using gold nanoshells. Anal. Chem., 75: 2377-2381.
    PubMed
  65. Hu, Z., F. Luo, Y. Pan, C. Hou and L. Ren et al., 2008. Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) peptide conjugated poly (lactic acid)-poly (ethylene oxide) micelle for targeted drug delivery. J. Biom. Mater. Res. Part A, 85A: 797-807.
    CrossRef
  66. Huang, D., T. Hu, N. Chen, W. Zhang and J. Di, 2014. Development of silver/gold nanocages onto indium tin oxide glass as a reagentless plasmonic mercury sensor. Anal. Chim. Acta, 825: 51-56.
    CrossRef
  67. Huang, X., I.H. El-Sayed, W. Qian and M.A. El-Sayed, 2006. Cancer cell imaging and photothermal therapy in the near-infrared region by using gold nanorods. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 128: 2115-2120.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  68. Huang, X., P.K. Jain, I.H. El-Sayed and M.A. El-Sayed, 2007. Gold nanoparticles: Interesting optical properties and recent applications in cancer diagnostics and therapy. Nanomed, 2: 681-693.
    CrossRef
  69. Huang, R.Q., Y.H. Qu, W.L. Ke, J.H. Zhu, Y.Y. Pei and C. Jiang, 2007. Efficient gene delivery targeted to the brain using a transferrin-conjugated polyethyleneglycol-modified polyamidoamine dendrimer. FASEB J., 21: 1117-1125.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  70. Huang, X., P.K. Jain, I.H. El-Sayed and M.A. El-Sayed, 2008. Plasmonic Photothermal Therapy (PPTT) using gold nanoparticles. Lasers Med. Sci., 23: 217-228.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  71. Huber, M., T.F. Wei, U.R. Muller, P.A. Lefebvre, S.S. Marla and Y.P. Bao, 2004. Gold nanoparticle probe-based gene expression analysis with unamplified total human RNA. Nucleic Acids Res., 32: e137-e145.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  72. Hudson, B.I., M.A. Hofmann, L. Bucciarelli, T. Wendt and B. Moser et al., 2002. Glycation and diabetes: The RAGE connection. Curr. Sci., 83: 1515-1521.
  73. Hutter, E. and J.H. Fendler, 2004. Exploitation of localized surface plasmon resonance. Adv. Mater., 16: 1685-1706.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  74. Pepic, I., J. Lovric and J. Filipovic-Grcic, 2013. How do Polymeric micelles cross epithelial barriers? Eur. J. Pharm. Sci., 50: 42-55.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  75. Iverson, N., N. Plourde, E. Chnari, G.B. Nackman and P.V. Moghe, 2008. Convergence of nanotechnology and cardiovascular medicine. BioDrugs, 22: 1-10.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  76. Jain, P.K., K.S. Lee, I.H. El-Sayed and M.A. El-Sayed, 2006. Calculated absorption and scattering properties of gold nanoparticles of different size, shape and composition:  Applications in biological imaging and biomedicine. J. Phys. Chem. B, 110: 7238-7248.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  77. Jedrych, M., K. Borowska, R. Galus and B. Jodlowska-Jedrych, 2014. The evaluation of the biomedical effectiveness of poly(amido)amine dendrimers generation 4.0 as a drug and as drug carriers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Pharm., 462: 38-43.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  78. Gong, J., M. Chen, Y. Zheng, S. Wang and Y. Wang, 2012. Polymeric micelles drug delivery system in oncology. J. Controlled Release, 159: 312-323.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  79. Jo, A., M. Kang, A. Cha, H.S. Jang and J.H. Shim et al., 2014. Nonenzymatic amperometric sensor for ascorbic acid based on hollow gold/ruthenium nanoshells. Analytica Chimica Acta, 819: 94-101.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  80. Borowiec, J., R. Wang, L. Zhu and J. Zhang, 2013. Synthesis of nitrogen-doped graphene nanosheets decorated with gold nanoparticles as an improved sensor for electrochemical determination of chloramphenicol. Electrochimica Acta, 99: 138-144.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  81. Joshefson, L., 2006. Magnetic Properties for MR Imaging. In: Biomems and Biomedical Nanotechnology, Lee, A.P. and J. Lee (Eds.). Vol. 1, Springer, New York, pp: 227-237.
  82. Kamat, M., K. El-Boubbou, D.C. Zhu, T. Lansdell, X. Lu, W. Li and X. Huang, 2010. Hyaluronic acid immobilized magnetic nanoparticles for active targeting and imaging of macrophages. Bioconjugate Chem., 21: 2128-2135.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  83. Kemp, M.M., A. Kumar, S. Mousa, E. Dyskin and M. Yalcin et al., 2009. Gold and silver nanoparticles conjugated with heparin derivative possess anti-angiogenesis properties. Nanotechnologyy, Vol. 20.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  84. Kenia, A., Lopez, M.N. Piria and J. Morey, 2013. Squaramide coated Fe3O4 nano and their selective complexon with carboxylate anions in water. Sen. Activators Chem., 18: 267-273.
  85. Keren, S., C. Zavaleta, Z. Cheng, A. de La Zerda, O. Gheysens and S.S. Gambhir, 2008. Noninvasive molecular imaging of small living subjects using Raman spectroscopy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 105: 5844-5849.
    Direct Link
  86. Kherlopian, A.R., T. Song, Q. Duan, M.A. Neimark, M.J. Po, J.K. Gohagan and A.F. Laine, 2008. A review of imaging techniques for systems biology. BMC Syst. Biol., Vol. 2.
    CrossRef
  87. Khlebtsov, N.G., L.A. Trachuk and A.G. Mel'nikov, 2005. The effect of the size, shape and structure of metal nanoparticles on the dependence of their optical properties on the refractive index of a disperse medium. Opt. Spectrosc., 98: 77-83.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  88. Kim, D., S. Park, J.H. Lee, Y.Y. Jeong and S. Jon, 2007. Antibiofouling polymer-coated gold nanoparticles as a contrast agent for in vivo X-ray computed tomography imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 129: 7661-7665.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  89. Kim, K.S., W. Hur, S.J. Park, S.W. Hong and J.E. Choi et al., 2010. Bioimaging for targeted delivery of hyaluronic acid derivatives to the livers in cirrhotic mice using quantum dots. ACS Nano, 4: 3005-3014.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  90. Klibanov, A.L., 2006. Microbubble contrast agents: Targeted ultrasound imaging and ultrasound-assisted drug-delivery applications. Invest. Radiol., 41: 354-362.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  91. Kneipp, K., H. Kneipp and J. Kneipp, 2006. Surface-enhanced raman scattering in local optical fields of silver and gold nanoaggregates-from single-molecule raman spectroscopy to ultrasensitive probing in live cells. Acc. Chem. Res., 39: 443-450.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  92. Kocbek, P., S. Kralj, M.E. Kreft and J. Kristl, 2013. Targeting intracellular compartments by magnetic polymeric nanoparticles. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci., 50: 130-138.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  93. Krishna, R.S.M., H.G. Shivakumar, D.V. Gowda and S. Banerjee, 2006. Nanoparticles: A novel colloidal drug delivery system. Indian J. Pharm. Educ. Res., 40: 15-21.
    Direct Link
  94. Lai, N.S., C.C. Wang, H.L. Chiang and L.K. Chau, 2007. Detection of antinuclear antibodies by a colloidal gold modified optical fiber: Comparison with ELISA. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 388: 901-907.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  95. Lee, H., E. Lee, D.K. Kim, N.K. Jang, Y.Y. Jeong and S. Jon, 2006. Antibiofouling polymer-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as potential magnetic resonance contrast agents for in vivo cancer imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 128: 7383-7389.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  96. Lee, S.J., G.Y. Hong, Y. Jeong, M.S. Kang, J.S. Oh, C.E. Song and H.C. Lee, 2012. Paclitaxel-incorporated nanoparticles of hydrophobized polysaccharide and their antitumor activity. Int. J. Pharm., 433: 121-128.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  97. Leoni, L. and T.A. Desai, 2001. Nanoporous biocapsules for the encapsulation of insulinoma cells: Biotransport and biocompatibility considerations. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 48: 1335-1341.
    CrossRef
  98. Leuschner, C., C. Kumar and M.O. Urbina, 2005. The use of ligand conjugated supraparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for early detection of metastasis. NSTI Nanotechnol., 1: 5-6.
  99. Li, H. and L. Rothberg, 2004. Colorimetric detection of DNA sequences based on electrostatic interactions with unmodified gold nanoparticles. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 101: 14036-14039.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  100. Li, Y., A.W. Wark, H.J. Lee and R.M. Corn, 2006. Single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping by nanoparticle-enhanced SPR imaging measurements of surface ligation reactions. Anal. Chem., 78: 3158-3164.
    Direct Link
  101. Liang, Q., B. An and D. Zhao, 2013. 12-Removal and immobilization of arsenic in water and soil using polysaccharide-modified magnetite nanoparticles. Monit. Water Qual., 2013: 285-298.
    CrossRef
  102. Libutti, S.K., G.F. Paciotti, H. Byrnes, H.R. Alexander and W.E. Gannon et al., 2010. Phase I and pharmacokinetic studies of CYT-6091, a novel PEGylated colloidal gold-rhTNF nanomedicine. Clin. Cancer Res., 16: 6139-6149.
    CrossRefPubMed
  103. Liu, H., Y. Wang, M. Wang, J. Xiao and Y. Cheng, 2014. Fluorinated poly(propylenimine) dendrimers as gene vectors. Biomaterials, 35: 5407-5413.
    CrossRefPubMed
  104. Liu, L.H., H. Dietsch, P. Schurtenberger and M. Yan, 2009. Photoinitiated coupling of unmodified monosaccharides to iron oxide nanoparticles for sensing proteins and bacteria. Bioconjugate Chem., 20: 1349-1355.
    CrossRefPubMed
  105. Liu, X., W. Sun, B. Zhang, B. Tian and X. Tang et al., 2013. Clarithromycin-loaded liposomes offering high drug loading and less irritation. Int. J. Pharm., 443: 318-327.
    CrossRef
  106. Liu, Z., W. Cai, L. He, N. Nakayama and K. Chen et al., 2007. In vivo biodistribution and highly efficient tumour targeting of carbon nanotubes in mice. Nat. Nanotechnol., 2: 47-52.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  107. Loo, C., A. Lin, L. Hirsch, M.H. Lee and J. Barton et al., 2004. Nanoshell-enabled photonics-based imaging and therapy of cancer. Technol. Cancer Res. Treat, 3: 33-40.
    Direct Link
  108. Lowery, A.R., A.M. Gobin, E.S. Day, N.J. Halas and J.L. West, 2006. Immunonanoshells for targeted photothermal ablation of tumor cells. Int. J. Nanomed., 1: 149-154.
    Direct Link
  109. Lu, C.W., Y. Hung, J.K. Hsiao, M. Yao and T.H. Chung, 2007. Bifunctional magnetic silica nanoparticles for highly efficient human stem cell labeling. Nano Lett., 7: 149-154.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  110. Lu, J., M. Shi and M.S. Shoichet, 2009. Click chemistry functionalized polymeric nanoparticles target corneal epithelial cells through RGD-cell surface receptors. Bioconjug Chem., 20: 87-94.
    CrossRefPubMed
  111. Luo, P.G., H. Wang, L. Gu, F. Lu and Y. Lin et al., 2009. Selective interactions of sugar-functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes with bacillus spores. ACS Nano, 3: 3909-3916.
    CrossRefPubMed
  112. Muthu, M.S., S.A. Kulkarni, A. Raju and S.S. Feng, 2012. Theranostic liposomes of TPGS coating for targeted co-delivery of docetaxel and quantum dots. Biomaterials, 33: 3494-3501.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  113. Maksim, I., D. Wrobel, K. Gardikis, S. Hatziantoniou and C. Demetzos et al., 2012. Effect of phosphorus dendrimers on DMPC lipid membranes. Chem. Phys. Lipids, 165: 408-413.
    CrossRefPubMed
  114. Marcu, A., S. Pop, F. Dumitrache, M. Mocanu and C.M. Niculite et al., 2013. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as drug delivery system in breast cancer. Applied Surf. Sci., 281: 60-65.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  115. Marradi, M., D. Alcantara, J.M. de la Fuente, M.L. Garcia-Martin, S. Cerdan and S. Penades, 2009. Paramagnetic Gd-based gold Glyconanoparticles as probes for MRI: Tuning relaxivities with sugars. Chem. Commun., 14: 3922-3924.
    CrossRefPubMed
  116. Martins, R., P. Baptista, L. Raniero, G. Doria, L. Silva, R. Franco and E. Fortunato, 2007. Amorphous/nanocrystalline silicon biosensor for the specific identification of unamplified nucleic acid sequences using gold nanoparticle probe. Applied Phys. Lett., Vol. 90.
    Direct Link
  117. Matveeva, E.G., I. Gryczynski, A. Barnett, Z. Leonenko, J.R. Lakowicz and Z. Gryczynski, 2007. Metal particles enhanced fluorescence immunoassays on metal mirrors. Anal. Biochem., 363: 239-245.
    PubMed
  118. Medina, C., M.J. Santos-Martinez, A. Radomski, O.I. Corrigan and M.W. Radomski, 2007. Nanoparticles: Pharmacological and toxicological significance. Br. J. Pharmacol., 150: 552-558.
    CrossRefPubMedDirect Link
  119. Mocellin, S. and D. Nitti, 2008. TNF and cancer: The two sides of the coin. Front Biosci., 13: 2774-2783.
    PubMed
  120. Movia, D., V. Gerard, C.M. Maguire, M. Jain and A.P. Bell et al., 2014. A safe-by-design approach to the development of gold nanoboxes as carriers for internalization into cancer cells. Biomaterials, 35: 2543-2557.
    CrossRefPubMed
  121. Mundargi, R.C., V.R. Babu, V. Rangaswamy, P. Patel and T.M. Aminabhavi, 2008. Nano/micro technologies for delivering macromolecular therapeutics using poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) and its derivatives. J. Control Release, 125: 193-209.
    CrossRefPubMed
  122. Murphy, C.J. and N.R. Jana, 2002. Controlling the aspect ratio of inorganic nanorods and nanowires. Adv. Mater., 14: 80-82.
    Direct Link
  123. Nasr, M., M. Najlah, A. D'Emanuele and A. Elhissi, 2014. PAMAM dendrimers as aerosol drug nanocarriers for pulmonary delivery via nebulization. Int. J. Pharmaceut., 461: 242-250.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  124. Negishi, Y., Y. Endo, T. Fukuyama, R. Suzuki and T. Takizawa et al., 2008. Delivery of siRNA into the cytoplasm by liposomal bubbles and ultrasound. J. Control Release, 132: 124-130.
    CrossRefPubMed
  125. Niidome, T., M. Yamagata, Y. Okamoto, Y. Akiyama and H. Takahashi et al., 2006. PEG-modified gold nanorods with a stealth character for in vivo applications. J. Control Release, 114: 343-347.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  126. Ojeda, R., J.L. de Paz, A.G. Barrientos, M. Martin-Lomas and S. Penades, 2007. Preparation of multifunctional glyconanoparticles as a platform for potential carbohydrate-based anticancer vaccines. Carbohydr. Res., 342: 448-459.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  127. Otsuka, H., Y. Akiyama, Y. Nagasaki and K. Kataoka, 2001. Quantitative and reversible lectin-induced association of gold nanoparticles modified with α-lactosyl-ω-mercapto-poly(ethylene glycol). J. Am. Chem. Soc., 123: 8226-8230.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  128. Ou, C., R. Yuan, Y. Chai, M. Tang, R. Chai and X. He, 2007. A novel amperometric immunosensor based on layer-by-layer assembly of gold nanoparticles-multi-walled carbon nanotubes-thionine multilayer films on polyelectrolyte surface. Anal. Chim. Acta, 603: 205-213.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  129. Paciotti, G.F., D.G.I. Kingston and L. Tamarkin, 2006. Colloidal gold nanoparticles: A novel nanoparticle platform for developing multifunctional tumor-targeted drug delivery vectors. Drug Dev. Res., 67: 47-54.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  130. Pan, B., D. Cui, Y. Sheng, C. Ozkan and F. Gao et al., 2007. Dendrimer-modified magnetic nanoparticles enhance efficiency of gene delivery system. Cancer Res., 67: 8156-8163.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  131. Pandey, P., S.P. Singh, S.K. Arya, V. Gupta, M. Datta, S. Singh and B.D. Malhotra, 2007. Application of thiolated gold nanoparticles for the enhancement of glucose oxidase activity. Langmuir, 23: 3333-3337.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  132. Park, J.W., C.C. Benz and F.J. Martin, 2004. Future directions of liposome-and immunoliposome-based cancer therapeutics. Semin. Oncol., 31: 196-205.
    CrossRefPubMed
  133. Pellequer, Y. and A. Lamprecht, 2009. Nanoscale Cancer Therapeutics. In: Nanotherapeutics: Drug Delivery Concepts in Nanoscience, Lamprecht, A. (Ed.), Pan Stanford Publishing. Chicago, pp: 93-124.
  134. Pera, N.P., A. Kouki, S. Haataja, H.M. Branderhorst and R.M. Liskamp et al., 2010. Detection of pathogenic Streptococcus suis bacteria using magnetic glycoparticles. Organic Biomol. Chem., 8: 2425-2429.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  135. Perise-Barrios, A.J., J.L. Jimenez, A. Dominguez-Soto, F. Javier de la Mata, A.L. Corbi, R. Gomez and M.A. Munoz-Fernandez, 2014. Carbosilane dendrimers as gene delivery agents for the treatment of HIV infection. J. Controlled Releas.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  136. Perni, S., C. Piccirillo, J. Pratten, P. Prokopovich, W. Chrzanowski, I.P. Parkin and M. Wilson, 2009. The antimicrobial properties of light-activated polymers containing methylene blue and gold nanoparticles. Biomaterials, 30: 89-93.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  137. Prato, M., K. Kostarelos and A. Bianco, 2008. Functionalized carbon nanotubes in drug design and discovery. Accounts Chem. Res., 41: 60-68.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  138. Qian, X., X.H. Peng, D.O. Ansari, Q. Yin-Goen and G.Z. Chen et al., 2008. In vivo tumor targeting and spectroscopic detection with surface-enhanced Raman nanoparticle tags. Nat. Biotechnol., 26: 83-90.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  139. QIAGEN, 2008. Superfect transfection reagent. QIAGEN Technical Services, California. http://www.ebiotrade.com/buyf/productsf/qiagen/301305.htm.
  140. Rai, A., A. Prabhune and C.C. Perry, 2010. Antibiotic mediated synthesis of gold nanoparticles with potent antimicrobial activity and their application in antimicrobial coatings. J. Mater. Chem., 20: 6789-6798.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  141. Ramirez-Segovia, A.S., J.A. Banda-Aleman, S. Gutierrez-Granados, A. Rodriguez and F.J. Rodriguez et al., 2014. Glassy carbon electrodes sequentially modified by cysteamine-capped gold nanoparticles and poly (amidoamine) dendrimers generation 4.5 for detecting uric acid in human serum without ascorbic acid interference. Analytica Chimica Acta, 812: 18-25.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  142. Rawat, M., D. Singh, S. Saraf and S. Saraf, 2006. Nanocarriers: Promising vehicle for bioactive drugs. Biol. Pharm. Bull., 29: 1790-1798.
    CrossRef
  143. Reilly, R.M., 2007. Carbon nanotubes: Potential benefits and risks of nanotechnology in nuclear medicine. J. Nuclear Med., 48: 1039-1042.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  144. Robert, P.A., 2013. Nanoparticles and the Control of Oral Biofilms. In: Nanobiomaterials in Clinical Dentistry, Subramani, K., W. Ahmed and J.K. Hartsfield (Eds.). William Andrew, New York, USA., ISBN-13: 9781455731275, pp: 203-27.
  145. Ruoslahti, E., S.N. Bhatia and M.J. Sailor, 2010. Targeting of drugs and nanoparticles to tumors. J. Cell Biol., 188: 759-768.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  146. Sanchez-Nieves, J., P. Fransen, D. Pulido, R. Lorente and M. Munoz-Fernandez et al., 2014. Amphiphilic cationic carbosilane-PEG dendrimers: Synthesis and applications in gene therapy. Eur. J. Med. Chem., 76: 43-52.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  147. Sato, K., K. Hosokawa and M. Maeda, 2005. Non-cross-linking gold nanoparticle aggregation as a detection method for single-base substitutions. Nucleic Acids Res., Vol. 33, No. 1.
    CrossRef
  148. Sato, Y., T. Murakami, K. Yoshioka and O. Niwa, 2008. 12-Mercaptododecyl β-maltoside-modified gold nanoparticles: Specific ligands for concanavalin A having long flexible hydrocarbon chains. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 391: 2527-2532.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  149. Sato, Y., K. Sato, K. Hosokawa and M. Maeda, 2006. Surface plasmon resonance imaging on a microchip for detection of DNA-modified gold nanoparticles deposited onto the surface in a non-cross-linking configuration. Anal. Biochem., 355: 125-131.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  150. Strydom, S.J., W.E. Rose, D.P. Otto, W. Liebenberg and M.M. de Villiers, 2013. Poly(amidoamine) dendrimer-mediated synthesis and stabilization of silver sulfonamide nanoparticles with increased antibacterial activity. Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med., 9: 85-93.
    CrossRef
  151. Schofield, C.L., R.A. Field and D.A. Russell, 2007. Glyconanoparticles for the colorimetric detection of cholera toxin. Anal. Chem., 79: 1356-1361.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  152. Seleem, M.N., N. Jain, N. Pothayee, A. Ranjan, J.S. Riffle and N. Sriranganathan, 2009. Targeting Brucella melitensis with polymeric nanoparticles containing streptomycin and doxycycline. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 294: 24-31.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  153. Sepulveda-Crespo, D., R. Lorente, M. Leal, R. Gomez and F.J. De la Mata et al., 2013. Synergistic activity profile of carbosilane dendrimer G2-STE16 in combination with other dendrimers and antiretrovirals as topical anti-HIV-1 microbicide. Nanomed.: Nanotechnol. Biol. Med., 10: 609-618.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  154. Sershen, S. and J. West, 2002. Implantable, polymeric systems for modulated drug delivery. Adv. Drug Delivery Rev., 54: 1225-1235.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  155. Sharma, P., S. Brown, G. Walter, S. Santra and B. Moudgil, 2006. Nanoparticles for bioimaging. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci., 123: 471-485.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  156. Kam, N.W.S., M. O'Connell, J.A. Wisdom and H. Dai, 2005. Carbon nanotubes as multifunctional biological transporters and near-infrared agents for selective cancer cell destruction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 102: 11600-11605.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  157. Shiraishi, K., K. Kawano, T. Minowa, Y. Maitani and M. Yokoyama, 2009. Preparation and in vivo imaging of PEG-poly (L-lysine)-based polymeric micelle MRI contrast agents. J. Controlled Release, 136: 14-20.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  158. Shrestha, S., C. Yeung, C. Nunnerley and S. Tsang, 2006. Comparison of morphology and electrical conductivity of various thin films containing nano-crystalline praseodymium oxide particles. Sens Actuators A: Phys., 136: 191-198.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  159. Shukla, R., S.K. Nune, N. Chanda, K. Katti and S. Mekapothula et al., 2008. Soybeans as a phytochemical reservoir for the production and stabilization of biocompatible gold nanoparticles. Small, 4: 1425-1436.
    CrossRef
  160. Singh, S.R., H.E. Grossniklaus, S.J. Kang, H.F. Edelhauser, B.K. Ambati and U.B Kompella, 2009. Intravenous transferrin, RGD peptide and dual-targeted nanoparticles enhance anti-VEGF intraceptor gene delivery to laser-induced CNV. Gene Ther., 16: 645-659.
    CrossRef
  161. Sonnichsen, C., B.M. Reinhard, J. Liphardt and A.P. Alivisatos, 2005. A molecular ruler based on plasmon coupling of single gold and silver nanoparticles. Nat. Biotechnol., 23: 741-745.
    CrossRef
  162. Soppimath, K.S. and G. Betageri, 2007. Nanostructures for Cancer Diagnostics and Therapy. In: Biomedical Nanostructures, Gonsalves, K., C. Halberstadt, C. Laurencin and L. Nair (Eds.). John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, ISBN-13: 9780470185827, pp: 409-437.
  163. Stoeva, S.I., J.S. Lee, J.E. Smith, S.T. Rosen and C.A. Mirkin, 2006. Multiplexed detection of protein cancer markers with biobarcoded nanoparticle probes. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 128: 8378-8379.
    CrossRef
  164. Storhoff, J.J., A.D. Lucas, V. Garimella, Y.P. Bao and U.R. Muller, 2004. Homogeneous detection of unamplified genomic DNA sequences based on colorimetric scatter of gold nanoparticle probes. Nat. Biotechnol., 22: 883-887.
    CrossRef
  165. Tanaka, R., T. Yuhi, N. Nagatani, T. Endo, K. Kerman, Y. Takamura and E. Tamiya, 2006. A novel enhancement assay for immunochromatographic test strips using gold nanoparticles. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 385: 1414-1420.
    CrossRef
  166. Tang, J., L. Zhang, H. Fu, Q. Kuang, H. Gao, Z. Zhang and Q. He, 2014. A detachable coating of cholesterol-anchored PEG improves tumor targeting of cell-penetrating peptide-modified liposomes. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B, 4: 67-73.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  167. Taylor, E. and T.J. Webster, 2011. Reducing infections through nanotechnology and nanoparticles. Int. J. Nanomed., 6: 1463-1473.
    CrossRefPubMed
  168. Tincer, G., S. Yerlikaya, F.C. Yagci, T. Kahraman, O.M. Atanur, O. Erbatur and I. Gurse, 2011. Immunostimulatory activity of polysaccharide-poly(I:C) nanoparticles. Biomaterials, 32: 4275-4282.
    CrossRefPubMed
  169. Tiwari, S., S.K. Verma, G.P. Agrawal and S.P. Vyas, 2011. Viral protein complexed liposomes for intranasal delivery of hepatitis B surface antigen. Int. J. Pharm., 413: 211-219.
    CrossRef
  170. Torchilin, V.P., V.S. Trubetskoy, A.M. Milshteyn, J. Canillo and G.L. Wolf et al., 1994. Targeted delivery of diagnostic agents by surface-modified liposomes. J. Controlled Release, 28: 45-58.
    CrossRef
  171. Tsai, C.S., T.B. Yu and C.T. Chen, 2005. Gold nanoparticle-based competitive colorimetric assay for detection of protein-protein interactions. Chem. Commun., 34: 4273-4275.
    CrossRef
  172. Ulbrich, K., T. Hekmatara, E. Herbert and J. Kreuter, 2009. Transferrin-and transferrin-receptor-antibody-modified nanoparticles enable drug delivery across the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB). Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm., 71: 251-256.
    CrossRef
  173. Van Kasteren, S.I., S.J. Campbell, S. Serres, D.C. Anthony, N.R. Sibson and B.G. Davis, 2009. Glyconanoparticles allow pre-symptomatic in vivo imaging of brain disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 106: 18-23.
    CrossRef
  174. Tiriveedhi, V., K.M. Kitchens, K.J. Nevels, H. Ghandehari and P. Butko, 2011. Kinetic analysis of the interaction between poly (amidoamine) dendrimers and model lipid membranes. Biochimica Biophysica Acta-Biomembr., 1808: 209-218.
    CrossRef
  175. Vigderman, L. and E.R. Zubarev, 2013. Therapeutic platforms based on gold nanoparticles and their covalent conjugates with drug molecules. Adv. Drug Delivery Rev., 65: 663-676.
    CrossRef
  176. Villalonga, R., R. Cao and A. Fragoso, 2007. Supramolecular chemistry of cyclodextrins in enzyme technology. Chem. Rev., 107: 3088-3116.
    CrossRef
  177. Vingerhoeds, M.H., H.J. Haisma, S.O. Belliot, R.H. Smit, D.J. Crommelin and G. Storm, 1996. Immunoliposomes as enzyme-carriers (immuno-enzymosomes) for Antibody-Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy (ADEPT): Optimization of prodrug activating capacity. Pharm. Res., 13: 604-610.
    CrossRef
  178. Wang, Z., R. Levy, D.G. Fernig and M.J. Brust, 2005. The peptide route to multifunctional gold nanoparticles. Bioconjugate Chem., 16: 497-500.
    CrossRef
  179. Wang, J., S. Tian, R.A. Petros, M.E. Napier and J.M. DeSimone, 2010. The complex role of multivalency in nanoparticles targeting the transferrin receptor for cancer therapies. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 132: 11306-11313.
    CrossRef
  180. Wang, Y.X., S.M. Hussain and G.P. Krestin, 2001. Superparamagnetic iron oxide contrast agents: Physicochemical characteristics and applications in MR imaging. Eur. Radiol., 11: 2319-2331.
    CrossRefPubMed
  181. Wang, Y., W. Qian, Y. Tan and S. Ding, 2008. A label-free biosensor based on gold nanoshell monolayers for monitoring biomolecular interactions in diluted whole blood. Biosens. Bioelectr., 23: 1166-1170.
    CrossRef
  182. Wang, Z., R. Levy, D.G. Fernig and M.J. Brust, 2006. Kinase-catalyzed modification of gold nanoparticles: A new approach to colorimetric kinase activity screening. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 128: 2214-2215.
    CrossRef
  183. Jang, W.D., K.M.K. Selim, C.H. Lee and I.K. Kang, 2009. Bioinspired application of dendrimers: From bio-mimicry to biomedical applications. Progr. Polym. Sci., 34: 1-23.
    CrossRef
  184. Wu, P., X. Chen, N. Hu, U.C. Tam, O. Blixt, A. Zettl and C.R. Bertozzi, 2008. Biocompatible carbon nanotubes generated by functionalization with glycodendrimers. Angewandte Chemie Int. Edn., 47: 5022-5025.
    CrossRefPubMed
  185. Zhang, X., Y. Zhang, H. Zhao, Y. He, X. Li and Z. Yuan, 2013. Highly sensitive and selective colorimetric sensing of antibiotics in milk. Analytica Chimica Acta, 778: 63-69.
    CrossRef
  186. Chen, X., K. Cai, J. Fang, M. Lai and J. Li et al., 2013. Dual action antibacterial TiO2 nanotubes incorporated with silver nanoparticles and coated with a Quaternary Ammonium Salt (QAS). Surf. Coatings Technol., 216: 158-165.
    CrossRef
  187. Xu, G. and H.L. McLeod, 2001. Strategies for enzyme/prodrug cancer therapy. Clin. Cancer Res., 7: 3314-3324.
    Direct Link
  188. Xu, X., M.S. Han and C.A. Mirkin, 2007. A gold-nanoparticle-based real-time colorimetric screening method for endonuclease activity and inhibition. Angewandte Chemie, 119: 3538-3540.
    CrossRef
  189. Xu, Y., J. Wang, X. Li, Y. Liu, L. Dai, X. Wu and C. Chen, 2014. Selective inhibition of breast cancer stem cells by gold nanorods mediated plasmonic hyperthermia. Biomaterials, 35: 4667-4677.
    CrossRef
  190. Wang, X.Q. and Q. Zhang, 2012. pH-sensitive polymeric nanoparticles to improve oral bioavailability of peptide/protein drugs and poorly water-soluble drugs. Eur. J. Pharmaceut. Biopharmaceut., 82: 219-229.
    CrossRefDirect Link
  191. Yang, L., X.H. Peng, Y.A. Wang, X. Wang and Z. Cao et al., 2009. Receptor-targeted nanoparticles for in vivo imaging of breast cancer. Clin. Cancer Res., 15: 4722-4732.
    CrossRef
  192. Yao, X., X. Li, F. Toledo, C. Zurita-Lopez, M. Gutova, J. Momand and F. Zhou, 2006. Sub-attomole oligonucleotide and p53 cDNA determinations via a high-resolution surface plasmon resonance combined with oligonucleotide-capped gold nanoparticle signal amplification. Anal. Biochem., 354: 220-228.
    CrossRef
  193. Yoo, M.K., I.Y. Park, I.Y. Kim, I.K. Park and J.S. Kwon et al., 2008. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles coated with mannan for macrophage targeting. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 8: 5196-5202.
    CrossRef
  194. You, C.C., O.R. Miranda, B. Gider, P.S. Ghosh and I.B. Kim et al., 2007. Detection and identification of proteins using nanoparticle-fluorescent polymer chemical nose sensors. Nat. Nanotechnol., 2: 318-323.
    CrossRef
  195. Yu, M.K., Y.Y. Jeong, J. Park, S. Park and J.W. Kim et al., 2008. Drug-loaded superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for combined cancer imaging and therapy in vivo. Angewandte Chemie Int. Edn., 47: 5362-5365.
    CrossRef
  196. Zhang, Z., S.H. Lee and S.S. Feng, 2007. Folate-decorated poly (lactide-co-glycolide)-vitamin E TPGS nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery. Biomaterials, 28: 1889-1899.
    CrossRef
  197. Zharov, V.P., J.W. Kim, D.T. Curiel and M. Everts, 2005. Self-assembling nanoclusters in living systems: Application for integrated photothermal nanodiagnostics and nanotherapy. Nanomed.: Nanotechnol. Biol. Med., 1: 326-345.
    CrossRef
  198. Jensen, R.A., J. Sherin and S.R. Emory, 2007. Single nanoparticle based optical pH probe. Applied Spectrosc., 61: 832-838.
    CrossRefDirect Link

Search

Leave a Comment

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *