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Review Article
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Guerrilla Marketing: The Nature of the Concept and Propositions for Further Research |
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Katharina Hutter
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Stefan Hoffmann
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ABSTRACT
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The concept of guerrilla marketing subsumes a set of different innovative advertising instruments which aim at gaining a large effect with a small budget. Although these instruments are more and more often applied by practitioners, there is barely scientific discussion about the concept. Therefore, this study describes the evolution of the current understanding of guerrilla marketing as an attempt of gaining the attention of a large number of recipients at relatively low costs by means of a surprise effect and a diffusion effect. The study highlights how different guerrilla instruments (ambient, sensation, viral, buzz and ambush marketing), try to evoke these effects. Finally, since there is rare empirical evidence about the efficacy of guerrilla marketing, the paper outlines a conceptual framework and several propositions for further research from consumer behavior perspective and managerial perspective.
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Received: February 23, 2011;
Accepted: May 06, 2011;
Published: October 27, 2011
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INTRODUCTION
In 1960, Ernesto Che Guevara, the leader of Cuban Revolution, described the
Guerrilla tactic in his well-known book Guerrilla Warfare as a method
of warfare that builds on raids and ambush attacks (Guevara,
1960). Marketers have adapted the concept to the business context during
the 1960s as a means of gaining large effects at low expenses (Baltes
and Leibing, 2008). Particularly during the last years, the popularity of
the guerrilla concept has steadily been growing, because the effectiveness of
classical advertising has been declining dramatically due to the following two
reasons (Van den Putte, 2009). First, the average US-consumer
is exposed to approximately 3,000 advertising messages in only one day (Kimmel,
2005). Facing this permanent flooding of attempts of persuasion, many people
feel constricted in their freedom to make independent consumption decisions
(Kalliny and Gentry, 2010). To reduce this psychological
reactance, they try to avoid being exposed to and being influenced by advertisements
(Edwards et al., 2002; Lessne
and Notarantonio, 1988). Second, by confronting consumers repeatedly with
the same type of advertisements they become familiar with these measures which
cause a wearout effect (Bass et al., 2007). For
that reason, particularly classical types of advertising lose their power to
attract consumers attention (Balasubramanian et
al., 2006; Darke and Ritchie, 2007).
To win the competition for attention, many marketers promote their products
more aggressively by using more and more advertising activities (Alsamydai
et al., 2010). This attempt, however, appears counterproductive,
because it requires a higher advertising budget and, most importantly, it prompts
even stronger avoidance behavior and wearout effects (Mburu
and Mogorosi, 2003). In order to find a way out of this closed loop, marketers
have to develop alternative concepts for attracting consumers attention
without causing reactance (Al-Marwai and Jayashree, 2010).
Several different unconventional advertising instruments have evolved (i.e.,
using unusual locations for advertising) which promise to generate a big outcome
with small financial effort (Levinson, 1984). These instruments
are subsumed under the umbrella of the guerrilla concept. It remains nebulous,
however, whether guerrilla marketing is a unique concept or just an attractive
name for a diffuse set of heterogeneous instruments. Due to the imprecise concept
notation, it is still under-researched whether guerrilla marketing is an effective
tool of communication and persuasion.
So far, some academics have already referred to the concept of guerrilla marketing
when examining different instruments, such as buzz marketing (Notarantonio
and Quigley Jr., 2009; Siefert et al., 2009),
viral marketing (Van der Lans et al., 2010)
or ambush marketing (McKelvey and Grady, 2008). Even
in published papers authors use the term guerrilla as subject term (Moor
et al. 2010; Van Wood et al., 2010).
But the literature still lacks a scientific contribution which directly focuses
on the guerrilla concept.
Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to stimulate the academic discussion about the guerrilla method in marketing and its related instruments. First, based on a short review of the evolution of the concept, we suggest an up-to-date definition. Second, we explain the main characteristics of the guerrilla concept which are a surprise effect, a diffusion effect and a low cost effect. We point out the level different guerrilla instruments are able to achieve in these effects. Third, as there is almost no empirical research on the effectiveness of guerrilla campaigns and on the managerial process. Thus, we suggest a conceptual framework and an agenda for further research. THE NATURE OF GUERRILLA MARKETING
Development of the concept: The concept of guerrilla marketing has been
changing during the last five decades. In the 1960s, many small and medium sized
enterprises (SME) in the US were urged to find innovative ways of effective
advertising with little marketing budgets. They attempted to equalize their
size-related disadvantages compared to large companies by means of unconventional
ways of advertising which they adjusted fast and flexibly to changing market
conditions (Levinson, 1984). At that time, these guerrilla
instruments were considered revolutionary because they were substantially different
to classical advertising. As consumers did not inevitably recognize guerrilla
activities as advertisement, they belong to the so called below the line-measures
(Carter, 2003; Kimmel, 2005).
The concept reached wide popularity after Levinson (1984)
had published the first comprehensive book on guerrilla marketing which provided
guidelines for small businesses. The book appeared during the corporate crisis
in the US, when the competitive situation had become tough because of numerous
foundations of SME. The new strategy small budget, big results claimed
to help SME surviving the crisis by means of innovative advertising activities.
Ries and Trout (1986) outlined success drivers of guerrilla
marketing (e.g., flexibility) which triggered a boom of guerrilla campaigns.
At this time, marketers still applied the guerrilla tactic mainly to weaken
their competitors (competitor oriented guerrilla approach; e.g., Levinson,
1984). During the subsequent decades, the marketing discipline has become
more and more customer-oriented. The development of guerrilla marketing reflects
this trend. The former objective has steadily been replaced by the goal of winning
new customers (Solomon et al., 2009).
The changing nature of the guerrilla concept from a competitor oriented approach
to a customer oriented approach is accompanied by a second development. In the
beginning, especially SME applied the guerrilla approach. Now-a-days, more and
more large companies are interested in this way of advertising. Due to global
developments, such as the financial crises, they have to cut their advertising
budgets. Hence, marketers put more emphasize on the performance of advertising
activities when planning their campaigns (Kim et al.,
2001). As a result, several different concepts have recently evolved which
claim to fulfill the guerrilla principle of gaining big result at low expenses
(Levinson, 2007). Advertising agencies which are not bounded
to strict academic definitions and which need to sell innovative concepts, created
different terms for the concepts, such as renegade marketing, covert marketing,
diffusion marketing, under-the-radar marketing or vanguard marketing (Egan,
2007; McAllister and Turow, 2002). Nonetheless,
all of these concepts are basically guerrilla marketing. Further, marketers
developed several specific instruments which are applied under the roof of guerrilla
marketing, such as ambush marketing, ambient marketing, sensation marketing,
buzz marketing or viral marketing (Carter, 2003; Notarantonio
and Quigley Jr., 2009; Hutter and Hoffmann, 2011a).
To sum up, to date, guerrilla marketing is mainly defined by the vague objective
of gaining big results at low expenses and an enumerative list of instruments.
Literature lacks a clear explicative definition which provides clear criteria
whether or not an instrument belongs to the guerrilla concept.
An up-to-date definition: Levinson claims (1984) all kinds of innovative
and eye-catching advertisements belong to the concept of guerrilla marketing.
Accordingly, guerrilla marketing is described as being fancy, atypical, unusual,
original, provoking, flexible, dynamic, innovative and creative. Some authors
stresses on the cost-cutting elements of guerrilla campaigns. Ries
and Trout (1986), for example, recommend marketers to save costs by identifying
market niches, creating a flat organizational structure and acting highly flexible.
Despite different foci, all definitions of guerrilla marketing agree that the
concept provides a solution of how to succeed in the competition for consumers
attention and of how to avoid high costs for advertising campaigns. However,
there are several different suggestions on how to achieve these objectives.
For the sake of clarity and in order to stimulate further research, this study
proposes a more concise explicative definition. Obviously, a central characteristic
of the guerrilla concept is the objective of an advantageous relationship of
advertising expenses and effects. In the following, we will use the term guerrilla
effect to describe the favorable ratio of cost and benefits. In this regard,
we consider costs as monetary expenditures for advertising campaigns. The benefits
of guerrilla actions are first and foremost an increase in consumers attention.
To evaluate a guerrilla campaign, several additional criteria (e.g., improvement
of image and sales figures) need to be considered. As discussed below, these
criteria are strongly affected by the increase of consumers attention.
Therefore, we focus on the basic guerrilla effect which is measured in terms
of consumers attention.
The ratio of costs and benefits can be improved by intensifying the potency
for drawing the attention of the audience to the advertising message. To achieve
this goal, guerrilla campaigns try to evoke a surprise effect (Hutter
and Hofmann, 2011b). In order to dumbfound people, guerrilla campaigns need
to be new and unconventional.
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Fig. 1: |
The basic guerrilla effect |
Moreover, to accomplish an efficient ratio, a relatively large number of recipients
have to be exposed to a guerrilla campaign. Therefore, guerrilla campaigns build
on a diffusion effect which is realized in an interpersonal or a medial way.
Guerrilla campaigns are designed to stimulate consumers and/or the media to
spread the advertising message. The more people addressed, the higher the aggregated
surprise effect and, thus, the lower the relative costs per person of the campaign
(= cost effect) (Fig. 1). Additionally, a low cost effect
can be achieved by planning campaigns that require little expenses (e.g., by
acting very flexibly to take opportunities of advertising at low costs). Summarizing,
the present study deduces the following definition of guerrilla marketing:
Guerrilla marketing is an umbrella term for unconventional advertisement campaigns which aim at drawing the attention of a large number of recipients to the advertising message at comparatively little costs by evoking a surprise effect and a diffusion effect. In this way, guerrilla marketing campaigns are highly efficient in terms of the ratio of costs and benefits. DRIVERS OF THE BASIC GUERRILLA EFFECT AND CORRESPONDING INSTRUMENTS In the following, we explain in more detail the surprise effect, the diffusion effect and the low cost effect. We demonstrate how different guerrilla instruments try to evoke these effects. Although each guerrilla instrument consists of all three effects, some instruments are primarily applied to maximize the surprise effect, some instruments are explicitly designed to stimulate a diffusion effect and some instruments mainly aim at cutting advertising costs. To provide a categorization, we ascribe different guerrilla instruments to those effects they are mainly focusing at (Table 1). Note that this categorization is a simplification which highlights the effect that the instrument mainly addresses. The core of viral marketing, for instance, is to stimulate a diffusion effect. Still, it includes the other two effects. It builds on a surprise effect to make the message worth telling and, thus, to gain the attention of a high number of recipients. The fact that consumers themselves diffuse the message within their social networks saves advertising costs.
Surprise effect
Rationale: The core principle of the guerrilla approach is to surprise consumers
with unexpected activities in order to draw their attention to the advertising
message. Surprise is a result of the divergence of perceptions and expectations.
Based on previous experiences, individuals develop schemas and thus expectancies
about certain events (Rumelhart, 1984). According to
the schema congruity theory (Mandler, 1982), the discrepancy
between a stimulus (e.g., unconventional advertisements) and a schema (e.g.,
not expecting advertising messages at a certain place) can evoke surprise (Alden
et al., 2000) (path 1 in Fig. 1). Unusual stimuli
are processed more deeply than those that are considered commonplace (Waddill
and McDaniel, 1998).
Table 1: |
Surprise, diffusion and low cost effects and corresponding
instruments |
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If expectancies are disconfirmed and the degree of disconfirmation passes
a certain threshold, the resulting emotional reaction is surprise (Meyer
et al., 1991; Stiensmeier-Pelster et al.,
1995; Vanhamme, 2000). Surprise leads to a change
in the cognitive activation. According to activation theory (Lindsley,
1951), a surprised individual suspends his previous activity and focuses
his attention on the surprising event (Derbaix and Vanhamme,
2003; Meyer and Niepel, 1994) (path 2 in Fig.
1).
Advertisers can use different methods to surprise consumers, such as absurdity
(Arias-Bolzmann et al., 2000; Dahlen
et al., 2005), humor (Eisend, 2009; Schwarz
and Hoffmann, 2009; Voss, 2009) and shocking messages
(Ay et al., 2010; Dahl et
al., 2003). Another possibility to evoke surprise is to implement advertisements
in atypical locations applying atypical media and means of promotion. For example,
light projection onto famous landmarks, huge poster-like messages on building
sites or giant representatives of products contradict consumers expectations.
Consumers, who are surprised by these unexpected advertisements, can hardly
avoid processing the advertising message (Johnston and Hawley,
1994). In this way, the surprise effect helps to attract the attention of
consumers who try to obviate being exposed to advertisements (path 3 in Fig.
1).
Instruments: Ambient marketing and sensation marketing are instruments
that explicitly try to surprise consumers by placing advertisements at locations
where consumers do not expect them. Ambient marketing is the guerrilla variant
of classical outdoor advertising. Advertisements are placed at unusual locations
in the direct social environment of the target group (Krautsack,
2008; Moor, 2003). Luxton and
Drummond (2000) defined ambient marketing as placement of advertising
in unusual and unexpected places (location) often with unconventional methods
(execution) and being first or only ad execution to do so (temporal).
According to Barnes (1999), the distinctive feature
of ambient advertising is to surprise consumers by confronting them with incongruous
stimuli in an uncommon background. Ambient marketing provides a wide spectrum
of opportunities ranging from low cost fly posting stickers and graffiti proofs
to advertisements in public bathrooms. Often gigantic (e.g., rebuild the airport
baggage reclaim as a roulette wheel to promote a casino) or minimalistic (e.g.,
put a 50 inch tall fuel dispenser next to an original one to symbolize minimal
consumption of gas) objects are presented. Ambient media is one of the fastest
growing marketing sectors and due to its relatively low costs and the great
number of targets reached its expected that the diffusion will take place rapidly
(Shankar and Horton, 1999; Turk
et al., 2006).
Sensation marketing aims at surprising pedestrians in public places by actions
that go beyond the scope of familiarity (Hutter and Hoffmann,
2011a). Passersby look at a specific action, because it is unconventional
and spectacular (e.g., actors performing a play in front of the theatre to attract
pedestrians attention to the theatre). Flash mobs are a subtype of sensation
marketing which is more and more often used. Non-commercial flash mobs consist
of a group of anonymous individuals, who meet apparently inexplicably at a public
place for performing a pointless action which lasts only a few minutes (White,
2006). Marketers have adapted the concept and developed commercial flash
mobs in order to surprise passersby and to direct their attention to an advertising
message. Ambient and sensation marketing have in common that both dumbfound
consumers in their familiar environments. While ambient marketing includes installations
for a specific time, sensation marketing consists of irreproducible one-time
actions. For that reason, sensation marketing is also called hit and run action.
Diffusion effect
Rationale: In classical advertising, the number of recipients often determines
the price of a campaign to a large degree (e.g., cost-per-thousand for advertisements
in TV, radio or print media). Guerrilla marketing provides ways of increasing
the number of individuals exposed to the advertising without increasing the
cost of a campaign. Therefore, the diffusion of the advertising message needs
to be stimulated in a goal-oriented and economic way (Solomon
et al., 2009). Marketing literature has widely described how ideas
and innovations diffuse among social networks and why consumers voluntarily
forward a message (Bass, 1969; Gatignon
and Robertson, 1991; Hoffmann and Soyez, 2010; Rogers,
2003). Particularly consumers, who feel strong emotions, are motivated to
share their experiences (Rime et al., 1992). Consequently,
to stimulate the diffusion of a message, advertisements need to evoke emotions
(Menon, 2010). Guerrilla marketing explicitly attempts
to trigger the emotion surprise. Surprised recipients are likely to talk about
their experiences to other persons. In addition to stimulating a diffusion process,
this word-of-mouth-communication (WoM) has another advantage over classical
advertisements: Since friends are considered more credible than anonymous persons
or commercial communication, WoM messages are highly persuasive (Arora,
2007; Herr et al., 1991; Smith
et al., 2007). Because of this diffusion effect the attention of
numerous recipients will be directed to the surprising message and to the brand
(path 4 in Fig. 1).
Instruments: Viral marketing, buzz marketing and guerrilla PR are instruments
that explicitly try to stimulate the diffusion effect. Viral marketing comprises
different methods to initiate a communication process which spreads like a virus
among potential customers (Ferguson, 2008; Phelps
et al., 2004; Putrevu and Lord, 2003; Southgate,
2010; Woerndl et al., 2008). Marketers can
trigger the diffusion of a message either in direct communication addressing
multipliers that forward the message to other consumers or in indirect communication
via different media. Stimulated by innovation in information and communication
technologies, many new techniques of viral marketing have evolved during the
last years. Video clips which diffused throughout the World Wide Web, are the
most frequently applied method of viral marketing (Haque
et al., 2006). As the advertising message is embedded in a video
clip with informative, unconventional, humorous, sexual, or taboo-breaking content,
consumers are motivated to forward the clip to their friends. In this way, video
clips are a moderate priced alternative to classical TV-spots.
Buzz marketing is a precursor of WoM which has become more and more widespread,
because it is very effective without requiring intensive spending (Mohr,
2007). Ahuja et al. (2007) defined buzz as
a multi-dimensional communication process that involves sending persuasive
messages out via buzz agents (senders) to buzz targets (receivers) in the form
of WOM (offline and online) conversations and retrieving market research information
from buzz agents on the particulars of these buzz marketing experiences.
Accordingly, buzz marketing uses consumers as market researchers, advertisers,
distributors and influencers in the decision-making process of other consumers.
Marketers foster the referencing behavior of buzz agents by providing them with
product samples, insider information and other incentives. To be persuasive,
buzz agents need to match the characteristics of the target group (Hughes,
2005; Thomas Jr., 2004). Therefore, they often appear
as authentic fans of a product.
Whereas viral marketing and buzz marketing stimulate the diffusion of the message
via consumer-to-consumer interactions, guerrilla PR has evolved as an accompanying
method for all guerrilla instruments to spread the message via the editorial
section of the media (Hutter and Hoffmann, 2011a). Thus,
it can be considered a subtype of public relation. Guerrilla PR markedly improves
the guerrilla effect since media reports increase the number of addressees at
hardly any financial efforts. Guerrilla PR is very persuasive, because consumers
consider press reports more credible than advertisements. To boost the efficacy
of guerrilla campaigns by guerrilla PR, marketers need to plan the campaigns
in such a manner that they are appealing for the journals (e.g., eye-catching
ambient installations or activities of sensation marketing).
Low cost effect
Rationale: Two characteristics of guerrilla campaigns evoke a low cost
effect. First, the diffusion effect helps to reach a wide audience causing no
or little costs, because consumers (viral marketing) or the media (guerrilla
PR) pass on the advertising message (path 5 in Fig. 1). Second,
guerrilla campaigns are frequently implemented in such a manner that they require
little monetary efforts (path 6 in Fig. 1). Many marketers
apply a free riding approach to cut costs and raise the number of recipients
simultaneously to maximize the low cost effect. For instance, they attempt to
benefit from placing advertisements at big events (e.g., sporting events) without
paying for it (path 7 in Fig. 1). Note that even if a campaign
requires intensive investment, the diffusion effect assures that a wide audience
is reached with an advertising which will decrease the relatively costs (the
monetary effort per person reached).
Instruments: Ambush marketing is the most prominent distinct guerrilla
instrument that focuses on keeping expenditures on a low level. It explicitly
builds on a free riding effect (Andreoni, 1988; Kim
and Walker, 1984; Marwell and Ames, 1981). Meenaghan
(1994) defined ambush marketing the practice whereby another company,
often a competitor, intrudes upon public attention surrounding the event, thereby
deflecting attention toward themselves and away from the sponsor. Ambush
marketing and sponsoring have in common that marketers use an event to promote
their brands or companies. In contrast to sponsoring, ambush marketing aims
at benefitting without having legal permission (Payne, 1998;
Townley et al., 1998) and without having the
duties of an official sponsor (Farrelly et al., 2005;
Seguin and OReilly, 2008; Shani
and Sandler, 1998; Tripodi and Sutherland, 2000).
Marketers use this parasitic behavior for benefitting from an image transfer
from an event to the company at low costs and for weakening the main sponsor.
Accordingly, ambush marketing is often considered a direct competition between
the official sponsors and the ambusher (Burton and Chadwick,
2009).
PROPOSITIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Although guerrilla marketing is applied more and more often in marketing practice,
there is a lack of accompanying research. From both, a theoretical and an empirical
point of view, little is known about how different guerrilla measures affect
consumer attitudes towards the advertising company and the product. To fill
that void, further research needs to develop models that explain how different
guerrilla instruments affect consumption decisions. Moreover, evaluative studies
should test these models and assess the advertising efficacy of different guerrilla
instruments. Reliable and valid measures of the efficacy of guerrilla campaigns
are needed to achieve these objectives. Finally, scholars have to generate guidelines
on how marketers should plan, implement, and evaluate guerrilla campaigns. As
an impulse for closing these gaps, we propose an agenda for further research
from a consumer behavior perspective and a managerial perspective.
Consumer behavior perspective: Scholars can measure the impact of guerrilla
campaigns in several different ways (attention, attitude towards the advertisement,
corporate reputation, sales figures etc.). Moreover, the evaluation of guerrilla
campaigns should take into account that each guerrilla instrument (e.g., viral
marketing, ambient marketing, ambush marketing) evokes specific effects. Accordingly,
the analysis of guerrilla effects is highly complex because different instruments,
different moderating and mediating factors, as well as different evaluation
criteria have to be taken into account. We suggest a general research framework
to categorize and systemize further research on consumers reaction on
guerrilla campaigns (Fig. 2).
Idiosyncratic behavioral models for each guerrilla instrument: Consumers
reactions to guerrilla campaigns might fundamentally differ from the reactions
to classical advertising, because guerrilla advertisements are highly unconventional.
They do not match to consumers expectations about advertising and therefore
they might be assessed independently from consumers pre-existing attitudes towards
advertising. Guerrilla marketing occurs in unconventional places and via unconventional
media and it explicitly attempts to provoke a surprise and a diffusion effect.
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Fig. 2: |
Framework for research on guerrilla effects from a consumer
perspective |
Thus, models of the effect of classical advertisements are not fully adequate
to evaluate guerrilla effects. Scholars need to adjust and extend these models
or they have to develop new specific models on the affective, cognitive and
conative effects of guerrilla campaigns.
Note that one comprehensive model cannot feasibly display all the effects that
different guerrilla instruments evoke. Each instrument (e.g., ambient marketing,
viral marketing) elicits various cognitive and affective processes. Therefore,
we suggest developing specific models concerning the advertising effect (e.g.,
the basic guerrilla effect) for each instrument individually. So far, researchers
have already considered some instruments separately, such as viral marketing
(Brown et al., 2010; Henning-Thurau
et al., 2004), buzz marketing (Notarantonio
and Quingley Jr., 2009; Thomas, 2004) or ambush
marketing (Burton and Chadwick, 2009; Quester,
1997). Further research should develop models for the remaining instruments.
Subsequently, scholars should extract a more general guerrilla approach by examining
in which way these models overlap.
Downstream variables of the chain of effects: To date, scholars mainly
discuss how guerrilla campaigns help to attract consumers attention (Siefert
et al., 2009) and to stimulate a WoM process (Derbaix
and Vanhamme, 2003). Future studies should take into account other outcome
variables, such as the impact on brand awareness, the image of the company and
customer loyalty (Thorson et al., 1992). Further
research should refer to existing models of advertising effectiveness to describe
the chain of effects from attention to these downstream criteria. The attitude
towards the ad-model (Lutz et al., 1983), for
instance, helps assessing the effects that the attitude towards a specific guerrilla
instrument elicits on the attitude towards the brand. Furthermore, researcher
should adopt advertising models that explain how surprise is evoked by incongruence
and inconsistency (Heckler and Childers, 1992; Houston
et al., 1987; Lui and Brewer, 1983), absurdity
(Arias-Bolzmann et al., 2000), humor (Eisend,
2009; Flaherty et al., 2004; Hadley
and MacKay, 2006; Schwarz and Hoffmann, 2009) and
shock (Dahl et al., 2003; Manceau
and Tissier-Desbordes, 2006). Although it is desirable that these factors
evoke a certain level of activation, they should be implemented carefully. If
the disconfirmation of expectancies is too strong the addressee may not able
to assimilate it and the activation potential is reduced (Berlyne,
1963). Hence, further research should clarify whether the surprise effect
is steadily increasing with the level of inconsistency and or if there is an
optimal point on a certain level.
Unintended effects: Some guerrilla activities are on the brink of legality.
In particularly, ambush activities sometimes cross legal and ethical limits
(OSullivan and Murphy, 1998; Townley
et al., 1998). Other actions (like ambient marketing) enter areas
which used to be free of advertisements. Some consumers might consider them
as a commercial intrusion in one of the last private areas disturbing the calmness
and aesthetics of their natural surroundings (Kimmel, 2005).
Facing these disadvantageous side effects, future research should consider possible
negative consequences of guerrilla campaigns.
Of course, provocative campaigns can raise attention which is the primary objective
of guerrilla campaigns. Importunate advertising in natural environment, however,
might also evoke disappointment, sadness, anger, and fury. Presumably, the interplay
of increased attention and these negative affects has a strong negative impact
on the downstream criteria of the chain of effects (e.g., image, purchase intention,
loyalty). Thus, further research needs to investigate which conditions drive
consumers to dislike and reject a certain guerrilla campaign. Since negative
mood reduces the advertising effectiveness (Hirschman and
Stern, 1999), scholars should investigate how negative emotions evoked by
guerrilla actions and negative evaluations result in a negative company image
or the denial of purchasing its products. Future research is asked to identify
potential risks and to provide solutions on how to avoid these risks (Dardis,
2009; De Pelsmacker and Van den Bergh, 1996). Moreover,
scholars have to discuss guerrilla activities (i.e., ambush marketing) from
an ethical point of view. As many consumers attach value to the ethics of advertising
(Drumwright and Murphy, 2009; Townley
et al., 1998), ethical aspects should be taken into account when
analyzing the attitude toward the ad and toward the brand. In case of a clearly
infringement of a right, marketers should consider legal conditions, such as
copy trademark and property right as well as fair trade law and law against
restraints on competition. To date, the legislation of many countries does not
regulate and punish ambush marketing. Presumably, the legal practice will change
in future times.
Moderator variables: The way how guerrilla campaigns influence different
criteria of the chain of effects presumably depends upon several moderator variables.
The branch (e.g., high-tech vs. food), the type of the company (e.g., SME vs.
global player) and the kind of product (high vs. low involvement or consumer
good vs. services) might influence the efficacy of guerrilla campaigns. In particular,
further research should investigate whether only young enterprises (e.g., innovative
start-ups) and small and medium sized enterprises can feasibly apply guerrilla
marketing or if traditional companies (e.g., in the financial sector) and multinational
enterprises can also benefit from guerrilla campaigns. Presumably, the target
group of the company is the most relevant moderator. Maybe the efficacy of guerrilla
campaigns is contingent on socio-demographic variables of the consumer, such
as age, gender, education (Schwarz and Hoffmann, 2009;
Hoffmann et al., 2010, 2011).
More likely, the efficacy depends on personal characteristics, such as the consumers
need for cognition (Reinhard and Messner, 2009), openness
for new experiences (Jones et al., 2009), innovativeness
(Hoffmann and Soyez, 2010) and sensation seeking (Galloway,
2009).
Managerial perspective
Creativity process: Advertisers are well advised not to copy existing campaigns
because imitations are neither novel nor unconventional and, thus, they cannot
evoke a surprise effect. The campaigns of the pioneering company are far more
surprising and effective than the campaigns of those who copy or adopt extant
guerrilla approaches. The perception of guerrilla campaigns changes over time
and in accordance to technical developments and customers experiences.
In order to design surprising campaigns, advertisers need to launch the right
activity at the right time. Only if advertisers know the habits and expectations
of their target group, they can evoke surprise effect and diffusion effects.
Generating new ideas requires an extensive effort of research and planning.
The required time and the resulting costs have to be considered in the calculation
of the guerrilla campaigns return on investment. Further research has to advice
managers how to stimulate the creativity process in order to create a surprise
effect.
Efficacy and success drivers: Considering stagnating or shrinking marketing
budgets, the appropriation of each advertising spending has to be put on a rational
basis (Broadbent, 1989). Accordingly, the criterion
of advertising efficiency is becoming steadily more important. Guerrilla marketing
claims to achieve a highly efficient ratio of costs and benefits due to the
surprise effect, diffusion effect and the cost effect. Note that this rationale
does not imply that guerrilla campaigns are necessarily cost saving. If the
benefits of an expensive campaign are high enough, the ratio is still effective.
High benefits result from attracting the attention of numerous people (diffusion
effect) by surprising them (surprise effect). Accordingly, cost-intensive campaigns
belong to the concept of guerrilla marketing as long as they evoke a strong
surprise effect and diffusion effect. Further research should compare the efficacy
of different guerrilla instruments (e.g., ambient, viral, ambush) with regard
to the three effects and with regard to their overall efficacy. Scholars need
to investigate the conditions (e.g., branch, product type, target group, corporate
image, and marketing budget) for an appropriate use of the various guerrilla
instruments. The success drivers of guerrilla campaigns (e.g., messages, products,
target groups, locations, humor etc.) should be identified. Presumably, there
are no monocausal explanations. In contrast, guerrilla campaigns are presumably
most effective if they reasonably fit to the company, the product and the target
group.
Assignability: Companies benefit from guerrilla activities only if consumers ascribe the action to the company or the product. If consumers associate the campaign with no enterprise or product, the company has to bear the costs without gaining any benefit. If consumers relate the campaign to a competitor, the proportion is even worse. For that reason, guerrilla advertisers must not solely focus on the creation of a surprise effect. They have to ensure that consumers assign the campaign to the company. If the company is not recognized as the origin, a competitor can adopt the idea and take advantage of the surprise effect and the attention of the customers. Thus, further research should investigate on how marketers can assume that consumers expose to a guerrilla activity and foster identification toward the company or brand. Marketers need to know how obvious these cues should be. Presumably, the cues need to be clear enough to identify the company but they must not be too importunate in order to prevent active brand avoidance.
Implementation and controllability: Due to the flexibility and the spontaneity
needed for guerrilla marketing, it is doubtable whether marketers can feasibly
plan and control the diffusion of a guerrilla campaign. Further research should
analyze how and when guerrilla activities develop an own dynamic once implemented
(Zuo and Veil, 2006). Additionally, scholars should
analyze how guerrilla campaigns interact with other marketing activities and
the public communication. In particular, negative media reports have to be considered.
Presumably, companies are well-advised to implement managers who are responsible
for guerrilla marketing and equipped with a defined budget. In this way, there
is one single person or group, who can flexibly react to actual developments
within the framework of the predefined marketing strategy.
|
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